potential health hazards, the most common drink was wine,
generally diluted and drunk at every meal, from morning to
night, even by children. While beer was known to the Greeks
because it was a common drink among their neighbors in Eu-
rope to the north and in Egypt to the south, it was considered
an uncouth drink.
Th e science of making wine, oenology, and the science of
growing grapes for wine, viticulture, were highly developed
among the Greeks, who understood the complex relationship
between variety of grape, climate, and condition of soil in
determining the quality of a wine. Certain areas were noted
for their wines. Chios, with its Chian wine, was probably the
most famous, but the islands of Cos, Th asos, and Lesbos were
also well known for their vintages. Coan wine, from Cos, was
made by incorporating seawater into the fermenting grapes
early in production, which was said to make an especially
smooth drink.
Drinking undiluted wine was rare, the mark of a bar-
barian. Th e Spartan king Cleomenes was said to have
learned from the Persians to drink wine “straight,” and
consequently he went mad. Nevertheless, at symposia, the
drinking-and-discussion parties popular among aristo-
crats, huge amounts of wine could be consumed, resulting
in drunkenness, the eff ects of which are oft en comically de-
picted on painted vases, particularly vases intended for use
at a symposium.
ROME
BY AMY HACKNEY BLACKWELL
Th e ancient Roman diet was simple at its core but could rise
to great heights of invention and extravagance. Th e staple in-
gredients of Roman cooking were olive oil, wine, and wheat.
In many cases these components formed the entire meal, per-
haps with the addition of a few fresh vegetables. Wealthy Ro-
mans, however, enjoyed dining in company and encouraged
the creation of expensive and original dishes.
Numerous works by Romans on food and drink survive
today. Cato the Censor (234–149 b.c.e.) wrote a great deal
about food in his treatise on farm management, De agri cul-
tura. He describes the best way to produce and sell oil, wine,
grain, and livestock and records many recipes for preserving
food made on the farm. Th e most elaborate source on the sub-
ject of Roman cuisine is Apicius on Cookery, a compilation of
recipes said to have been written by the gourmet Caelius Api-
cius and probably completed around the fourth century c.e.
Wheat formed t he fou ndat ion of most mea ls. In t he ea r-
liest days of Rome wheat was most commonly cooked into
porridge, but by the time of the Roman Republic (509–27
b.c.e.) baked bread was more common. Getting this bread
to Roman tables was no small feat. During the republic most
of Rome’s wheat was grown in Sicily and Sardinia. To pre-
vent famines and the peasant revolts that could accompany
them, the Roman government created a system to provide
wheat to all citizens. Th is system began under Gaius Grac-
chus, who in 123 b.c.e. passed a lex frumentaria, or grain
law, that provided grain to each citizen at a subsidized price.
Clodius Pulcher made grain free to all citizens in 58 b.c.e.
By the time of the emperor Trajan (r. 98–117 c.e.), Rome
was importing much of its wheat from Egypt and Africa
and still distributing it free to citizens. Administering this
enterprise required a large bureaucracy of offi cials to keep
track of distributions.
Romans supplemented their bread with olive oil and
wine. Th e olive grew readily in Italy and the Mediterranean,
and olive oil was ubiquitous. Olive oil is packed with cal-
ories and nutrients and was the main source of fat in the
ancient Roman diet. Romans also ate cured olives. Wine
and water were the main Roman beverages. People typically
mixed their wine with water. Women were not supposed to
drink wine; one of Rome’s most ancient laws made it illegal
for women to drink wine, and although the law was not en-
forced, it was still considered improper for women to drink
too much. Greek wine was popular, but Italy produced its
fair share of vintages as well. Romans sometimes mixed
honey and spices into wine. Th ey did not drink beer, mead,
or milk because they considered these the drinks of barbar-
ians such as Germans. Th ey likewise did not make distilled
drinks.
Vegetables and fruits fi lled out most meals. Th e most
common vegetables included onions, garlic, radishes, celery,
asparagus, carrots, beets, and zucchini. Poor people gathered
wild greens and boiled them. Typical fruits included fi gs,
grapes, dates, apples, pears, mulberries, peaches, apricots,
and cherries. Walnuts and almonds were popular nuts. To-
matoes and potatoes did not grow in Europe at that time; the
traditional Italian tomato sauce did not arise until aft er the
discovery of the Americas.
Many Romans were completely vegetarian, both from
necessity and from inclination. Most Romans got their pro-Terra-cotta utensil with six receptacles, thought to be an egg dish or
cup holder. (Alison Frantz Photographic Collection, American School of
Classical Studies at Athens)
480 food and diet: Rome