became especially prolifi c throughout this period, as did the
use of copper and mica ornaments.
Hohokam culture emerged from the desert regions of the
Southwest in southern Arizona around 200 b.c.e. Archaeolo-
gists trace their origin to northern Mexico. Th is foreign con-
nection continued throughout Hohokam development and is
evidenced in the use of ceremonial ball court, irrigation, and
copper bells. Evidence also suggests a thriving trade existed
between Hohokam and its neighbors, including the Mogollon
(ca. 200–1400 c.e.) of southeastern Arizona and southwest-
ern New Mexico.
MESOAMERICA
In prehistoric Mesoamerica (the present-day regions of Mex-
ico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, and Honduras) attitudes
toward foreigners and strangers appear in various artworks
produced in the Pre-Classic Period (1500 b.c.e.–300 c.e.). De-
pictions of foreign captives became common beginning with
the Olmec (ca. 1200–ca. 400 b.c.e.) who prospered in the
Gulf coast region of Mexico. Images of defeated foreigners
symbolized power and hegemony for the various civilizations
that fl ourished in Pre-Classic Mesoamerica.
Olmec art centers on the promotion of rulership. At the
archaeological site of La Venta, an early example, Altar 4 (ca.
900 b.c.e.) depicts a ruler coming out of a carved niche. In his
hand he holds a rope that wraps around the base and leads
to two bound captives, one on either side. Th is monument
probably served as a throne and was a symbol of both the Ol-
mec state (ruler) and its religion (the Olmec creation myth
featured a primordial cave). However, the presence of bound
captives directly tied to the seat of power also refl ects the im-
portance of warfare in Olmec power symbolism.
Similarly, in Monte Alban, capital of the Zapotec civili-
zation (500 b.c.e.–1000 c.e.), in the Valley of Oaxaca (south-
central Mexico) the so-called Temple of the Danzantes
(Temple of the Dancers) contains 150 stone slabs depicting
captives carved in low relief. Th ese fi gures, all individually
posed and all men, are incised with such an elegant line that
they were at fi rst believed to be dancers; however, they are
shown with closed eyes and scroll markings indicating that
they are dead and possibly mutilated. In Mesoamerica war
was oft en waged not only for extension of territory and trib-
ute but also for acquiring precious objects for rituals, includ-
ing foreign sacrifi cial victims.
SOUTH AMERICA
Th e South American continent is a world of extremes—desert
coast gives way to the majestic Andes, which give way to the
mighty Amazon. Th is striking environment shaped the daily
life and cultural development of ancient Andean cultures,
creating a deeply transcendent aesthetic tradition defi ned by
its sacred architecture, textiles, and stonework.
Th e archaeological site of Cerro Sechín (ca. 1000 b.c.e.)
in the northern highlands of present-day Peru combines the
spiritual aspects typical of Andean art with a sinister twist. A
mazelike temple complex surrounded by more than 300 10-
foot-tall slabs features numerous images of bodies and sev-
ered body parts. Th e site has been interpreted as a memorial
to a horrifi c massacre, and there are also indications that it
may refer to a shamanic initiation ritual. However, among the
dismembered bodies are men with battle clubs, which sug-
gests ritual warfare. Whatever the case may be, the gruesome
nature of this depiction points to the possibility of unfriendly
relations with neighboring groups. Here, as in Mesoamerica,
foreigners were oft en depicted in scenes of war or sacrifi ce
and seem to have been embedded in the trappings of political
propaganda.
Another example, a Nazca (Peru, ca. 400 b.c.e.) ceramic
in the shape of a stepped fret—an abstract form resembling a
mountain and a symbol of prestige—exhibits a complicated
narrative scene of a cosmic battle between bird-headed sha-
mans and writhing opponents. Representing a victory over an
enemy (whether real or supernatural), this work is testimony
to the political nature of the Nazca culture and provides in-
sight into the complicated interactions among the people of
that time and place.See also architecture; borders and frontiers; ceram-
ics and pottery; climate and geography; economy;
empires and dynasties; exploration; government or-
ganization; language; laws and legal codes; migra-
tion and population movements; military; religion
and cosmology; resistance and dissent; sacred sites;
seafaring and navigation; social organization; trade
and exchange; war and conquest; writing.FURTHER READING
Rhys Carpenter, Beyond the Pillars of Hercules: Th e Classical World
Seen through the Eyes of Its Discoveries (London: Universal-
Ta ndem, 1973).
Paul Cartledge, Th e Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1993).
Lionel Casson, Travel in the Ancient World (Baltimore. Md.: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1994).
Ernest S. Dodge, Islands and Empires: Western Impact on the Pacifi c
and East Asia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1976).
J. D. Fage, ed., Th e Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2, From c.
500 bc to ad 1050 (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press, 1978).
Simon Goodenough, Citizens of Rome (New York: Crown, 1979).
Edith Hall, Inventing the Barbarian: Greek Self-Defi nition through
Tra g e dy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
Th omas Harrison, ed., Greeks and Barbarians (Edinburgh, U.K.:
Edinburgh University Press, 2001).
Wolfram Herwig, Th e Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples,
trans. Th omas Dunlap (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1997).
Walther Hinz, Th e Lost World of Elam: Re-creation of a Vanished
Civilization, trans. Jennifer Barnes (London: Sidgwick and
Jackson, 1972).foreigners and barbarians: further reading 491