tilco, in western Mexico, dating to the fi rst or second century
b.c.e. Th ese ceramic fi gurines display the desire among early
Mesoamericans to diff erentiate and defi ne gender and status
through costume, hairstyle, ornament, and activity.
Th e study of costume and ornament has greatly in-
creased our understanding of status in the ancient Americas.
Naturally, much of this information comes from later ancient
cultures that were organized in a relatively stratifi ed manner.
Burial caches found throughout Mesoamerica demonstrate
that ornaments buried with women and men varied accord-
ing to age, sex, and social status. Th ere are also a few excep-
tions to the lack of monumental images of women from the
ancient period, two notable examples being the stela (a carved
commemorative pillar) of a female ruler from the Olmec site
of La Venta (1200–400 b.c.e.) near the central coast of Mexico
and the monument of a female ruler from the central Mexi-
can site of Chalcatzingo (900–600 b.c.e.). Although rulership
and ritual may have “offi cially” been the purviews primarily
of men, these exceptions suggest that women sometimes held
positions of power. A similar example of assigning gender
and status may be seen with the ceramic production of the
Moche culture (1–600 c.e.) of northern Peru. A cross-section
of Moche ceramic vessels demonstrates a surprising range of
means for depicting gender identity and roles, particularly
with regard to women. Gender is assigned not only through
hairstyle, clothing, and ornament but also through social
roles, as the Moches depict women as rulers, as deities, and
as mothers.
All ancient American societies possessed goddesses and
gods within their pantheons, and both women and men par-
ticipated in ritual and ceremony. Physical evidence suggests
that both sexes acted as shamans, priests, and curers and
that both engaged in ritual sacrifi ce. Shamans were particu-
larly important in most American cultures, serving not only
as leaders but also as intermediaries between the human and
spiritual realms. Th us the existence of female shamans sug-
gests that women held at least some religious and political
power. Th e Chavín (ca. 900–ca. 200 b.c.e.) of northern Peru
were the earliest American culture known to have had women
as deities and important supernatural beings, but many sub-
sequent cultures throughout the Americas also worshipped
goddesses. One extraordinary example can be seen near pres-
ent-day Mexico City at the site of Teotihuacán (1–650 c.e.),
where the cult of the “Great Goddess” became so prevalent
that many scholars believe she was the offi cial patron goddess
of the city.See also adornment; art; children; clothing and foot-
wear; crafts; crime and punishment; death and buri-
al practices; drama and theater; education; empires
and dynasties; family; festivals; household goods;
hunting, fishing, and gathering; language; laws and
legal codes; literature; military; music and musical
instruments; occupations; religion and cosmology;
slaves and slavery; social organization; textiles and
needlework; war and conquest; writing.I.199: Th e Babylonians have one most shameful
custom. Every woman born in the country must once
in her life go and sit down in the precinct of Venus
[Ishtar] and there consort with a stranger. Many of
the wealthier sort, who are too proud to mix with
the others, drive in covered carriages to the precinct,
followed by a goodly train of attendants, and there take
their station. But the larger number seat themselves
within the holy enclosure with wreaths of string about
their heads—and here there is always a great crowd,
some coming and others going; lines of cord mark out
paths in all directions; the women and the strangers
pass along them to make their choice. A woman who
has once taken her seat is not allowed to return home
till one of the strangers throws a silver coin into her lap,
and takes her with him beyond the holy ground. When
he throws the coin, he says these words: “Th e goddessMylitta prosper you.” (Venus is called Mylitta by the
Assyrians.) Th e silver coin may be of any size; it cannot
be refused, for that is forbidden by the law, since once
thrown it is sacred. Th e woman goes with the fi rst man
who throws her money and rejects no one. When she
has gone with him and so satisfi ed the goddess, she
returns home, and from that time forth no gift however
great will prevail with her. Such of the women as are tall
and beautiful are soon released, but others who are ugly
have to stay a long time before they can fulfi ll the law.
Some have waited three or four years in the precinct. A
custom very much like this is found also in certain parts
of the island of Cyprus.From: Herodotus, Th e History,
trans. George Rawlinson
(New York: Dutton and Co., 1862). Herodotus: Excerpt from Th e History
of the Persian Wars, ca. 430 b.c.e. Th e Middle East504 gender structures and roles: primary source documents