(2465–2323 b.c.e.) kings. Th e kings are brothers born to a
priest in the cult of Re at Heliopolis and his wife, Ruddjedet.
Th e birth is assisted by the sister goddess pair Isis and Ne-
phtys and by the god Khnum.
Th e Egyptians realized that the transition of power in-
volved a certain measure of risk that could potentially lead
to turmoil. To avoid potential power struggles, a ruling king
might decide to share his power with his son, the crown
prince. Vested with all the trappings and power of kingship,
the son would rule alongside his father as his coregent. Th e
evidence suggests that oft en the older king retained more au-
thority and prestige, while the younger ruler was sent out on
more physically strenuous activities, such as leading a mili-
tary expedition or traveling around the country. Typically
monuments built during the joint reigns of a father and his
son would bear double dates, giving the regnal year and titles
of the younger king alongside those of his father. Although
the more common representation of a ruling king next to his
predecessor, his deceased father, was initially taken by Egyp-
tologists to signify a period of joint reign, it is now less certain
that this was the case. Th e new king may have chosen to be
represented next to his father to legitimize his claim to the
throne.
EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION AND
BUREAUCRACY
One the earliest and most bureaucratic administrative sys-
tems known, the Egyptian government system was highly
structured and hierarchical. At the head of this complex sys-
tem was an offi cial by the title of thaty or chaty, commonly
translated as “vizier” or “prime minister.” For all practical
purposes, the vizier was second only to the king and oft en
served as the king’s deputy. Th e vizier may initially have been
a member of the king’s immediate family, even a king’s son.
Several viziers of the Old Kingdom bore the title of sa-nesou,
or “king’s son.” However, this title does not necessarily refl ect
a blood relation to the king. Offi cials occasionally added on
such titles to indicate a certain level of achievement or their
rank at court.
In later periods of Egyptian history, the title of vizier
was given to individuals who were clearly not members of
the royal family. Normally, the vizier was a royal appointee.
However, in times of weakened royal authority, the title could
become hereditary, and a certain level of nepotism existed.
For example, the Th irteenth Dynasty (ca. 1783–aft er 1640
b.c.e.) autobiographical inscription of the vizier Ankhu sug-
gests that not only Ankhu but also other members of his fam-
ily served as viziers under several kings.
As early as the Th ird Dynasty (ca. 2649–2575 b.c.e.), the
vizier supervised all government departments. Perhaps be-
cause the power of the vizier rivaled the king’s, by the begin-
ning of the New Kingdom (1550–1070 b.c.e.) the offi ce was
shared by two people. Residing in Memphis was the vizier of
Lower gypt. Th e vizier of Upper Egypt had his seat in several
diff erent cities.
Th e installation and duties of the vizier are detailed in the
18th Dynasty (1550–1307 b.c.e.) Th eban Tomb of Rekhmire.
Rekhmire served as vizier under Th utmose III (ca. 1479–1425
b.c.e.). One of the best-preserved texts detailing the duties of
the vizier, this text commences with a formal speech given by
the king, in which the offi ce of the vizier is described as “the
support of the whole land.” Th e king then goes on to com-
ment on the nature of the offi ce, asserting that “it is not sweet;
it is bitter as bile.” Part of a much older tradition, such state-
ments were probably formulaic.
Th is text describes Rekhmire as responsible for several
diff erent departments, including the royal treasury, the bu-
reau for land assessment and property exchange, and the
court system. For tax purposes the vizier had the additional
responsibility of conducting a census of cattle, produce, and
land every two years. Moreover, the text refers to Rekhmire
as serving as “the ears and eyes of the sovereign.” Another
epithet, which refers to Rekhmire as the “heart of [his] Lord,”
may refer to his advisory role. In ancient Egyptian the heart
was the seat of thought and intellect.
In addition to providing a detailed account of the govern-
ment departments supervised by the vizier, the lengthy text
begins with a description of the physical layout of the offi ce
of the vizier. It describes his stool, his mat, the garb that he
wore, his staff , and the placement of his assistants and scribes.
Th e text also provides an idea of the decorum observed in
the vizier’s chambers. It concludes with a summation of the
vizier’s duties: to dispatch envoys, district councilors, and
mayors and governors; to appoint offi ceholders such as over-
seers; to hear their reports and read their records; to appoint
the master of the army and review the state of fortresses; to
mark boundaries for districts, garden plots, and estates; and
to hear legal disputes, among numerous other duties.
Th e vizier was thus responsible for every aspect of civil
government. One of the most prominent features of the
Egyptian administrative system was the royal archives. Ev-
ery transaction was recorded: wills, title deeds, census lists,
conscription lists, orders, memos, tax lists, letters, journals,
inventories, regulations, and trial transcripts. Th e offi ce of
the vizier was the main repository of the archives. Th e vizier
was the tax assessor of the country. As such, he was respon-
sible for the annual budget. In ancient Egypt the main source
of income was agricultural produce. In view of the generally
arid climate of Egypt, the vizier needed to monitor the lev-
els of the Nile closely. A particularly low Nile would lead to
drought and was therefore disastrous, so special preparations
were in order.
One of the main objectives of the treasury was to fi nance
royal building projects. Taxes were collected in the form of
grain and stored in the royal granary. Th e produce collected
would be used to pay offi cials and craft smen and may have
been used to supplement the incomes of local temples and
funerary cult complexes. Payment to individuals and estates
was made in kind. Individual craft smen and artisans received
bread and beer as wages. Additional tax demands were regu-government organization: Egypt 513