THRACE
Other than ancient Greece, one of the oldest civilizations to
form a central government in Europe was Th race. Th e people
were called the Th racians, though the region was home to
a number of tribes, including not only the native Th racians
but also the Edones, Bisaltes, Cicones, Bistones, and others.
Th race historically was a region that occupied modern-day
Bulgaria, northeastern Greece, portions of Turkey and Ser-
bia, and the eastern portion of the Republic of Macedonia.
Ancient Th race provides a good example of the evolving
nature of government in Europe. Th e Th racians were a collec-
tion of warlike tribes. Th ese tribes had little connection with
one another. Each occupied a fortifi ed town and was ruled
by a tribal leader. Over the centuries Th race came under the
domination of various other peoples, including the Greeks,
the Macedonians, and the Romans. Until the arrival of the
Romans in particular, “Th race” as a government entity did
not really exist. Th ere was little in the way of an administra-
tive structure, though coinage developed under the infl uence
of the Greeks. Tribal rulers exercised power over the people
in their tribes. Oft en these tribes went to war with one an-
other, bringing one tribe under the sway of a stronger, more
dominant neighbor. Because these tribes did not have settled
systems of agriculture, they did not have to establish mecha-
nisms for land allocation, the distribution of food, tax col-
lection, and the like. Th e law was administered by the sword.
Eventually, the Th racian tribes were driven out of the region
by invading Celts. What they left behind was a region devoid
of written records about day-to-day government activities.
CELTS
Th e history of the ancient Celts in many respects parallels
that of the Th racians. Again, the terms Celt and Celtic re-
fer not to an empire in an organized sense of the word. Th e
Celts were essentially an ethnic group that spread throughout
much of the European continent and into the British Isles. At
no point in history was there a Celtic capital, though some
Celtic tribes created an oppidum, or fortifi ed town that served
as a central hub. Nor was there a ruling dynasty or succession
of kings and emperors. Th e Celts, much like the Th racians,
consisted of scores of largely independent tribes—at least 118
distinct tribes are known—each ruled by its own minor king
or chieft ain. Th ese tribal divisions were largely an accident
of geography and history. Individual tribes remained isolated
from one another by geographical barriers.
As a vast conglomeration of tribes, the ancient Celts had
no real governmental organization. Each of the tribes was
ruled by a chieft ain who gained his (or her) power by force of
arms, by providing access to valuable resources, or by having
been elected by members of the tribe. Beneath the chieft ain
was a warrior aristocracy, followed by a class of freemen farm-
ers. Th e names of some of these chieft ains, about whom little
is known, include Orgetorix, Sinorix, Dunmorix, Cartisman-
dua (a woman), Prasutagus, Amborix, Clondicus, Luernios,
Ariamnes, and Adiatorix. Th e suffi x -rix on many of these
names suggests that the person was a supreme chieft ain and
is related to the Latin word rex, meaning “king.” Th roughout
most of continental Europe there was little sense of empire
or of nation-states. Small communities of people, in many
cases sharing culture and language but living independently
of one another, were ruled locally. Th ere was little in the way
of administration, public works, and all the other trappings
of government. Leadership was exercised by force. Alliances
were forged from time to time out of mutual necessity, par-
ticularly for defense. Each tribe had more or less fi xed and
recognized borders.
Land was held in common and consisted of forested
land, wilderness, and agricultural land. Celtic societies tend
to have complicated systems of land tenure. Laws governing
this tenure specifi ed the rights and responsibilities of each
land holder. Sometimes the land was worked for the benefi t
of the particular clan that held rights to it. Sometimes it was
work in common for the benefi t of the clan’s chief, the tribal
ruler, or the priestly class. Land was also worked in com-
mon to benefi t the old and sick. Foraging and grazing rights
tended to be held in common rather than apportioned to
individuals.
By the medieval period legal codes had developed in such
Celtic countries as Ireland and Wales; in Ireland, the code
was called the Brehon laws, from an ancient Celtic word for
“judge.” In Wales, the legal code was called the Hywel Dda.
Th ese legal codes developed from ancient law codes, usu-
ally referred to by historians as common Celtic law. Th ese
codes probably dated back to the Bronze Age, certainly to the
Iron Age (from about 200 b.c.e. to 100 c.e. in that part of
the world). Th ese law codes were not written down but rather
were oral. Also, no single code applied in all Celtic societies.
Rather, each community developed its own code based on its
own local needs, though in time these codes coalesced into
a common code. In general, the code was administered by
Druids, members of the ancient Celtic priestly class.
In fact, Druids and the priestly class were in many in-
stances the chief form of government organization. Th is
group was thought to be in possession of spiritual wisdom,
so Druids were placed in charge of such matters as the cal-
endar, the scheduling of festivals, ceremonies, and religious
holidays, and other matters of concern to the tribe as a whole.
Tribal business was discussed and settled at yearly meetings
attended by clan leaders and directed by Druids. During
these assemblies the Druids settled land disputes, conducted
trials for those accused of crimes, and supervised the election
of chiefs and their retainers by popular vote.THE GERMANIC TRIBES
Historians use the term barbarian monarchy to refer to king-
ship among the ancient Germanic tribes—that is, those tribes
that inhabited northern Europe, including the Scandinavian
countries. Th ey use this term to distinguish the nature of the
Germanic monarchy from later monarchies under the feudalgovernment organization: Europe 525