been thought to cure breathing diseases and perhaps skin
diseases. Th e Mayans seem to have been using smoke for
similar purposes by 650 b.c.e. An ill person would be cloaked
in smoke, which was supposed to draw the disease out of the
body. Sweat houses were also used by Mayans because it was
thought that the sweating caused by heat would carry poisons
out of the body.
Other cures and treatments came from plants. In North
America it is likely that shamans, or native healers, had
practical knowledge of how to use certain plants to treat ill-
nesses. Headaches could be treated with powdered Indian
turnips and upset stomachs with a drink of boiled mint. A
therapy for asthma might have been powdered skunk cab-
bage root. Even tuberculosis seems to have had a treatment,
the eating of black nightshade. A salve from yarrow could be
used to treat cuts. Energy could be recovered by eating the
peyote cactus. In Mesoamerican cultures herbs were used to
treat illnesses, and surgery was used to amputate diseased
bones. In the Museum of the Bank of the Pacifi c in Ecuador
is a sculpture showing a man chewing coca; it dates from
about 1500 b.c.e. Coca was probably used to renew energy.
In ancient American cultures disease was not only phys-
ical but also spiritual. Some ancient Americans may have be-
lieved that diseases resulted from the loss of part of the soul.
A shaman would “suck in” the missing part of the soul and
blow it back into the patient. Oft en, diseases were thought to
be spiritual poisons. In North America and Central Amer-
ica eggs were passed over a patient’s body to suck out the
spiritual poison. Th e egg would then contain the poison and
would be disposed of. Ancient Mayans would place the egg
underground.
In Central America caves were thought to be sources of
illness. Breezes from the caves were believed to carry dis-
eases to humans. Th us, placing charms at the entrances of
caves might prevent the spread of disease by keeping it con-
tained in the caves. On the other hand, a patient might have
been treated in a cave, perhaps to send his or her illness back
into the cave. Among the Maya, shamans engaged in “earth
magic,” using crystals in their healing rituals, probably as a
way to draw on the power of the earth from which the crystals
had come.See also agriculture; art; calendars and clocks; cities;
climate and geography; death and burial practices;
economy; empires and dynasties; family; food and diet;
natural disasters; nomadic and pastoral societies;
pandemics and epidemics; religion and cosmology; sa-
cred sites; settlement patterns; social organization.I advanced in life; I attained to the allotted span.
Wherever I turned there was evil, evil—
Oppression is increased, uprightness I see not.
I cried unto god, but he showed not his face.
I prayed to my goddess, but she raised not her head.
Th e seer by his oracle did not discern the future
Nor did the enchanter with a libation illuminate my case.
I consulted the necromancer, but he opened not my
understanding.
Th e conjurer with his charms did not remove my ban.
How deeds are reversed in the world!
I look behind, oppression encloses me.
Like one who the sacrifi ce to god did not bring
And at meal-time did not invoke the goddess
Did not bow down his face, his off ering was not seen;...
Into my prison my house is turned.
Into the bonds of my fl esh are my hands thrown;
Into the fetters of myself my feet have stumbled.
With a whip he has beaten me; there is no protection;
With a staff he has transfi xed me; the stench was terrible!All day long the pursuer pursues me,
In the night watches he lets me breathe not a moment
Th rough torture my joints are torn asunder;
My limbs are destroyed, loathing covers me;
On my couch I welter like an ox
I am covered, like a sheep, with my excrement.
My sickness baffl ed the conjurers
And the seer left dark my omens.
Th e diviner has not improved the condition of my
sickness—
Th e duration of my illness the seer could not state;
Th e god helped me not, my hand he took not;
Th e goddess pitied me not, she came not to my side
Th e coffi n yawned; they [the heirs] took my possessions;
While I was not yet dead, the death wail was ready.
My whole land cried out: “How is he destroyed!”
My enemy heard; his face gladdened
Th ey brought as good news the glad tidings, his heart
rejoiced.
But I knew the time of all my family....
Th is is the dream which I saw by night: Tabu-utul-Bêl: “Ludlul Bêl Nimeqi,”
ca. 1700 b.c.e. Th e Middle East556 health and disease: primary source documents