ungulates by hand; it is possible that such animals were cap-
tured alive and then killed later for ritual purposes. At fi rst
only the king is shown using a bow and arrow. Scenes from
the late Old Kingdom, however, show private tomb owners
using this weapon to bring down various species of antelope
as well as wild ass, Barbary sheep, dama deer, and ostriches.
Th e sparsely vegetated rocky landscapes in which these de-
picted hunts take place are occasionally bordered by netting
fences, suggesting that the animals were sometimes captured
fi rst and then released into a corral before being set upon. Th e
necessity for such “hunting parks” may refl ect a gradual de-
cline during the Dynastic Period in the populations of some
species in their natural habitats.
Tomb paintings also show men hunting in the marshes.
Set within impenetrable papyrus thickets, these images usu-
ally feature an abundance of birds, such as ducks, Egyptian
geese, sacred ibis, pied kingfi shers, and little egrets. In a scene
that was popular from the Old Kingdom until the New King-
dom (ca. 1550–1070 b.c.e.), the tomb owner, while holding
“decoy birds” in one hand, hurls a throwing stick at wild fowl
to knock them to the ground. In other scenes, groups of hunt-
ers employ a “clap net” to catch large numbers of waterbirds.
Th is device consisted of netting panels laid out across the wa-
ter surface. Once a suffi cient number of birds had alighted
upon the submerged trap, the men, while hidden from view,
pulled on a rope to close the panels over the animals. Scenes
from the Old Kingdom frequently show a gray heron stand-
ing prominently nearby; the heron was used as a decoy to at-
tract birds to the trap.
Wild birds were also captured in the surrounding coun-
tryside. For example, wall scenes show that common quail
attracted to harvests were fl ushed into weighted nets, which
teams of running workmen dragged across grain fi elds. Simi-
larly, golden orioles drawn to orchards were caught in nets
slung over fruit trees aft er the shouts of waiting men caused
them to fl y upward.
Both pictorial and physical evidence has provided details
about ancient Egyptian fi shing methods. Spear and harpoon
points made of bone, ivory, and copper have been recovered
from archaeological sites dating from the Predynastic to the
Greco-Roman Period. Th ese objects are also represented in
wall paintings that depict tomb owners using a bident (a two-
pronged spear) to stab fi sh while canoeing in the marshes and
in scenes where men hunt hippopotamuses with barbed har-
poons. Wall scenes oft en illustrate large-scale fi shing opera-
tions in which long seines (a type of large net) overfl owing
with tilapia, Nile perch, gray mullet, catfi sh, and European
eels are hauled in to shore by groups of fi shermen. However,
small wooden models found in tombs dating to the Middle
Kingdom (ca. 2040–ca. 1640 b.c.e.) show that the seine could
also be dragged through the water while slung between a pair
of boats. In some scenes weir traps (basket traps) are deployed
in shallow canals to intercept fi sh swimming upstream, while
in other images workers strain to lift from the water large dip
nets fi lled to capacity with a variety of species. Hand lines
were also used, and fi shhooks of bone, ivory, shell, and copper
have been recovered from many sites. Simple barbless hooks
were common at fi rst, but barbed examples became popular
during the Middle Kingdom, a time when the fi rst depictions
of fi shing rods also appear.
Once the catch was brought to land, tomb scenes show
that the fi sh were gutted and then the fl esh was dried by either
hanging it from lines or laying it out on the ground, oft en with
the heads and spines still intact. Mullet roe was especially
prized; this was also removed and eaten either fresh or dried.
Despite occasional religious restrictions, fi sh were consumed
throughout Egyptian history. Th e remains of a fi sh-process-
ing plant have been found in a Fourth Dynasty (ca. 2575–ca.Archery case painted with a hunting scene, from Th ebes, Egypt, Middle Kingdom, (2040–1640 b.c.e.). (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)
574 hunting, fishing, and gathering: Egypt