were actively hunted, though more oft en these animals were
probably found and used when they were stranded.
Th e waterlogged conditions of some of these coastal sites
led to the preservation of wood and plant fi bers only very
rarely found elsewhere. Th is evidence shows that ancient peo-
ples had developed a complex technology, including station-
ary fi sh traps of wooden stakes and woven withies, as well as
eel baskets that diff er very little from those still in use today.
Dugout canoes and paddles have also been found, though
mainly these items seem suited for calmer waters near the
shore.
Many species of birds were also exploited, some in large
numbers, taken when their migration routes brought them
within reach. Others, such as the white-tailed eagle, were
used less oft en, but their feathers may have been important
for arrow fl etching as well as for ornamental and ceremonial
purposes. Nets, small fragments of which survive from some
sites, were probably as useful for capturing birds and other
small game as they were for fi shing.
A great variety of plants was gathered, for a variety of
purposes, including food, medicines, and raw materials for
clothing, basketry, and dyes. Unfortunately, rather less is
known concerning the exploitation of plants than of animal
resources, partly because plant remains do not survive as well
as animal bones and are more diffi cult to recover during ex-
cavations. An exception is the hazelnut, the charred shells of
which are ubiquitous on Mesolithic sites across Europe. Th e
stones of wild fruits, such as plum and apple, and the pips of
many types of wild berries have also been found where pres-
ervation conditions were favorable. Far less well represented
are herbs and other greens that would have added fl avor and
variety to the diet and would have been of medicinal impor-
tance as well. A greater abundance and variety of edible plants
would have been available in southern than in northern Eu-
rope, including sweet foods, such as fi gs and honey. Indirect
evidence of their use is seen in the much higher rates of caries
(cavities) in the teeth of human skeletons from this period in
southern Europe.
A reliance on hunting, fi shing, and gathering does not
mean that people wandered endlessly over the landscape. Th eir
use of the environment was both highly knowledgeable and
highly structured, oft en following a distinct seasonal round,
with return visits to, for example, productive berry patches
or animal migration routes year in and year out. In areas
that were favored with especially rich and varied resources,
communities were able to live in larger and more permanent
villages, comparable in many ways to the earliest farming vil-
lages. Th ere is evidence of such settlements patterns in parts
of southern Scandinavia and on some stretches of the Danube
River, most famously at the site of Lepenski Vir.
Based on comparisons with people practicing a hunting,
fi shing, and gathering economy in more recent times, we can
surmise that diff erent activities were oft en carried out by dif-
ferent age and gender groups but that there was at the same
time a considerable degree of fl exibility in these arrangements.
Th us, in many cases, young men were probably the most ac-
tive hunters, while young women may have ranged farthest in
gathering plants and shellfi sh as well as seeking out or taking
any small game that opportunistically presented itself. Young
children and older men and women likely stayed closer to the
camp or village, contributing in other ways. Many men prob-
ably also gathered, especially at certain times of the year, such
as when the berries were ripe and would soon be lost to birds
and bears if not gathered quickly. And no doubt some women
enjoyed and were skilled in hunting larger game. Other ac-
tivities, such as game drives, or preparing and setting nets for
migratory fi sh or birds, would have required the participation
of everyone.GREECE
BY CHRISTOPHER BLACKWELL
Hunting fi gures prominently in the mythology of ancient
Greece. Several of the famous Twelve Labors of Heracles
(Hercules to the Romans) involved hunting: his killing of
the Nemean Lion, his hunt for the Ceryneian Hind and the
Erymanthean Boar, and his killing of the Stymphalian Birds.
Th e famous Boar Hunt of Meleager, which ended in trag-
edy, brought together a number of mythological heroes. Th e
hunter was a romantic fi gure who existed outside the normalHarpoon tips made of antler from the cave of Courbet, Penne-Tarn,
France, and dating to about 10,500 b.c.e. (© Th e Trustees of the British
Museum)
578 hunting, fishing, and gathering: Greece