closed form. Th is development was practical, in that it re-
duced the likelihood that the oil might spill. By the third
century b.c.e. the lamp body was even more closed, with a
small fi ll hole usually less than an inch in diameter. Th e typi-
cal classical and Hellenistic oil lamp had a globular body with
a fl attened base and a fl at top. Centered in the top of the lamp
was a pour hole or fi ll hole, through which oil was poured into
the reservoir. Th e upper surface, surrounding the fi ll hole, is
called the “discus” and was sometimes decorated with a geo-
metric, fl oral, or fi gurative design. In some instances this de-
sign dictated an off -center placement of the fi ll hole.
Ancient terra-cotta oil lamps were decorated in a variety
of ways. Th e surface could be burnished or covered with a slip
or glaze. Stamped or raised patterns are oft en found on the
shoulder of the lamp, around the fi ll hole. Th e fabric, manu-
facture, and decoration of these lamps refl ect contemporary
ceramics, and it is very possible that some potters produced
lamps in their workshops along with other types of vessels. In
Athens of the Classical Period, for example, lamps were made
with the same reddish-orange fabric and glossy black slip
seen in ancient Greek pottery. Once molds began to be used,
even more elaborate lamps could be created. Oft en the lamp’s
discus would be decorated with a relief design that could be
fl oral, geometric, or fi gural. One of the simplest, most com-
mon motifs is a repetitive pattern of ridges and grooves ra-
diating from the fi ll hole. Greek lamps with fi gural scenes
could draw their inspiration from a wide variety of sources,
including daily life, cult, literature, and myth. Th e images
on such lamps resemble in many ways the compositions on
contemporary coins. Mold-made lamps could also be created
in the form of any other object or fi gure, such as an animal,
a human or satyr head, or a sandaled foot; such lamps are
called “plastic.”
Ancient lamps oft en had one or more elongated nozzles,
through which the end of the wick could protrude for light-
ing. If there were many nozzles and many wicks, more fuel
was consumed and more illumination provided. A lamp
might or might not have had a handle; if there was one, it
was generally modeled and attached to the lamp body oppo-
site the nozzle. Some lamps had small pierced or unpierced
projections, called lugs, in lieu of a handle. Th e pierced lug
could be used to hang the lamp by a string when not in use,
while the unpierced versions seem to have had no practical
function. Classical Greek terra-cotta lamps were made on the
same wheels that were used to make pottery, but artisans in
the Hellenistic era developed the ability to fashion them by
using plaster or clay molds; this became the preferred method
of manufacture from the third century b.c.e. through the Ro-
man period and allowed lamps to be even more easily mass-
produced. Lamp molds are oft en found on archaeological
sites along with lamps themselves, allowing for the identifi ca-
tion of lamp workshops.
Another important source of information about lamp
manufacture and trade in antiquity is the maker’s marks and
owner’s signatures that were sometimes stamped on the un-
derside of the lamp. Th ese signs, representing the potter or
the workshop where the object was made, could range from
a single letter or pictograph (a symbolic drawing) to a full
word or name. Votive inscriptions also sometimes appear on
examples that were dedicated to a member of the Greek pan-
theon of gods.
Lamps were used in a variety of contexts in ancient
Greece, including private homes, public buildings, and re-
ligious sanctuaries. Th ey were sometimes suspended from
a wall or ceiling and sometimes placed on specially made
lamp stands. Niches could also be constructed in a wall to
hold a lamp and illuminate the room or hallway. Lamps,
used or unused, were also typical off erings in temples and in
tombs. Like pottery, lamps not only were essential objects in
the daily lives of ancient Greeks but also provide invaluable
archaeological artifacts for scholars. Th e ubiquity and rela-
tive indestructibility of both types of artifact (though easily
broken, small pieces of vases and lamps survive well on ar-
chaeological sites) help us to “illuminate” various aspects of
the ancient Greek world.ROME
BY LUCAS G. RUBIN
Th e Romans employed a range of methods for generating
artifi cial light, the most basic of which was the open fi re.
Torches were also used, fabricated in a variety of means from
the simple to the elaborate. Some were simple wooden stakes
while others were fastened bundles with a crown composed
of a fl ammable material and soaked with a chemical acceler-
ant, a substance that speeds the development of fi re.
Candles were also used, probably inherited from the
Etruscans. Because of their biodegradable and fragile nature,
they have not survived well in the archaeological record, but
there is suffi cient evidence of their use in the form of extant
candlesticks and candleholders. Candle shaft s were made of
tallow or beeswax as well as the reed of vegetable fi ber. Bees-
wax was readily obtainable through apiculture, or beekeeping,
an agricultural enterprise in which the Romans excelled. Be-
cause the manufacturing process was rather involved, wide-
spread use of candles was restricted primarily to the wealthy.
By far the most common device for generating artifi cial
light was the oil lamp, which was ubiquitous throughout the
Roman world. Th e basic oil lamp consisted of a body (infun-
dibulum) with a fl at top (discus) bordered by an ornamental
rim (margo), an opening for a wick near the front (ellychnium),
and a handle at the back (ansa or manubrium). In the middle
of the discus there was usually a hole for replenishing the fuel.
Lamps were most commonly f ueled w it h olive oil, t hough less
expensive castor oil—which was particularly smoky—may
have been more common among the poor. Many diff erent
types of wicks were used, including castor, mullein, asbestos,
linen, and papyrus.
Lamps were typicaly made of clay, metal (gold, silver,
iron, lead, and especially bronze), and stone. Th e most com-590 illumination: Rome