sounds. What is almost unique about Egyptian writing is
that the pictures were never completely replaced by abstract
signs. Th roughout Egyptian history hieroglyphic writing was
a combination of signs that expressed sounds with those that
expressed ideas. Along with these two types of signs was a
third that could be added to designate classes of related words.
Th e ancient written language was complex and became highly
developed to a level where it could be used to convey any kind
of information, including poetry, prose, religious texts, and
scientifi c, mathematical, and medical treatises. If written lan-
guage was not an independent invention in Egypt, credit is
due for a complex and comprehensive method of recording
information.
Egypt was an agricultural country throughout its ancient
history. Th e people were completely dependent on the an-
nual fl ooding of the Nile for successful food crops. Th e yearly
fl ood, or inundation, was the result of the winter rains in cen-
tral Africa. When the fl ood waters reached Egypt, a new layer
of silt was deposited, the land was thoroughly watered, and
the natural buildup of salts in the earth was leached out. Th e
Egyptians developed a system of basin irrigation that enabled
them to retain the fl oodwater for a time and then release it
into the fi elds. Because of the annual fl ooding, the river val-
ley had gradually built up a system of natural dikes or levees
made up of the fresh silt deposited by the waters each year.
Th ese were pierced to help draw water through canals to the
fi elds and then closed, creating temporary reservoirs. When
it was time to begin planting, the dikes were pierced again to
allow excess water to escape.
To move water from the level of the river to higher fi elds,
the Egyptians invented a device called a shaduf. Th is was a
simple lever pole with a bucket on one end, counterbalanced
with stone or mud, which made it possible to lift water 5–6
feet. Th is was a highly labor-intensive method, but it was
the only mechanical solution to raising water known to the
Egyptians until late in their history. In the Ptolemaic Period
(304–30 b.c.e.) a second method was introduced. Th e sakkia
was an animal-driven waterwheel that increased volume and
reduced human labor. Both the shaduf and the sakkia were
still being used well into the 20th century.
Although glass was not widely manufactured in ancient
Egypt, the basis for its production was known. Rare examples
of glass objects have been found, but the principles used in
glassmaking were also those used to make Egyptian faience.
Blue or green glazed objects of all kinds were produced us-
ing this technique. Egyptian faience is a ceramic-like mate-
rial composed of powdered quartz and a small amount of
lime, usually with a copper compound to give it color. Th e
powdered quartz—essentially crushed sand—was made into
a paste that could be modeled by hand or pressed into a mold.Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Nakht with agricultural scenes, from Th ebes, Egypt (1350–1300 b.c.e.); the introduction of papyrus as a
convenient, fl exible, and portable writing system made possible the preservation of many documents. (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)
inventions: Egypt 595