CROPS
Th e main Greek crops were the olive, the grape, and grain
(barley and wheat). Th ese three crops are oft en referred to
as the “Mediterranean triad,” since they were staple foods of
many people living in the Mediterranean basin. Nevertheless,
the Greeks supplemented their diet with a variety of foods,
such as fi gs, apples, pomegranates, peas, beans, lentils, tur-
nips, cabbage, dates, and plums. As Greek traders and con-
querors ventured farther afi eld, they imported new crops
such as the peach, which was introduced to Greece in the sec-
ond century b.c.e. Th e Greeks seem to have preferred eating
wheat over barley, but wheat required much more water to
grow; thus, many farmers had no choice but to grow barley.
Th ey cultivated several varieties of barley, which was hardi-
er than wheat and grew well in poor soils. Th e Greeks were
aware of the importance of crop rotation; they also knew that
some crops could reinvigorate the soil, as could periodically
leaving fi elds fallow.
Th e olive was an important source of fat but was also
grown to produce soap, perfume, and fuel for lamps. Olive
trees require a considerable investment of time, money, and
labor. Th ey must be grown from cuttings rather than seeds so
that the plant does not revert to its wild state, and they must
be pruned annually. It could take many years for a new plan-
tation to reach full production. Th e trees required weeding
as well as hoeing around their bases to drive the roots down
into the soil. Th is practice made the trees more resistant to
drought. Apparently as a natural defense against drought,
olive trees produce a good crop only every other year. Th ese
fl uctuations in crop size are a regional phenomenon, since all
the trees in a given area face roughly the same climatic condi-
tions. Olives ripen in October and are harvested through the
winter. Th ey must be treated before becoming edible. Greek
olive oil was traded throughout the Mediterranean, and the
oil produced in certain regions such as Attica became espe-
cially popular. Jars of Athenian olive oil were given to the
winners of some competitions at the greater Panathenaea (a
quadrennial festival celebrated at Athens).
Wine was the staple drink of the ancient Greeks. Vine-
yards, like olive groves, required a lot of labor: weeding, prun-
ing, and tilling the soil around the vines to drive down the
roots (again, drought resistance was of critical importance).
Stakes, trellises, and trees were used to support the growing
vines. In Greece the grapes would be harvested in the early
fall, and laborers would press the grapes and store the juice
for fermentation. Th e wine of certain Aegean islands, such
as Cos and Chios, was in particularly high demand. Even
though they produced their own vintages, the Romans im-
ported considerable quantities of Greek wine into Italy. Most
Greeks would consume wine every day, though it was nor-
mally mixed with water. Th e symposium, a fundamental
Greek institution, was a drinking party at which aristocratic
men enjoyed wine while socializing, playing games, and lis-
tening to music and poetry.
PASTORAL AGRICULTURE
In addition to growing crops, the Greeks also practiced
pastoral agriculture, keeping cows, sheep, goats, and pigs.
Cows were a good source of labor in addition to meat. Cattle
were expensive, and most people would have been unable
to eat meat except when cattle were sacrifi ced at religious
ceremonies. Cow’s milk was apparently not used, but their
hides were an important product. Sheep provided wool (the
primary fabric for Greek clothing) and meat, and their milk
was used to make cheese. Goats also were a source of meat
and milk for cheese. Herds oft en grazed on the marginal
land unsuited for farming. Some shepherds would move
their herds to mountain pastures in the summer, when the
lowlands became dry and fodder was harder to come by.
Th is practice is called transhumance. Th e summer pasture-
lands were sometimes in border areas, and competition for
these regions could lead to war with neighboring city-states.
Pigs were kept for meat and also sometimes sacrifi ced. Some
Greeks raised poultry for eggs, meat, or sacrifi ce. Beekeep-
ing was also important. Honey sweetened many dishes,
preserved food, could be mixed with wine, and was an
ingredient in some medicines. Th roughout antiquity wild
game was hunted, and wild herbs and nuts were gathered to
supplement the Greek diet.LABOR
Some animals were kept for their labor rather than as a
source of food. Horses were not widely used in agriculture
both because they were too expensive (considerable amounts
of land would have been needed for cultivating their fodder)
and because the proper type of harness had not yet been in-
vented to exploit their labor in plowing fi elds. Oxen, donkeys,
and mules performed the heavy work, since they required
less food than horses and were physiologically better suited
to the available harness technology. Donkeys and mules also
live longer than horses and so were a better investment. Since
mules are the product of a male donkey and a mare—and
must be nursed by the mare—most farmers would have had
to purchase them rather than raise their own.
On most farms people did the bulk of the labor. Poorer
farmers worked the land themselves, while those who could
aff ord to own slaves assigned them to perform various agri-
cultural chores. In some Greek communities slaves formed a
major part of the workforce. Th e Spartans, for example, had
eff ectively enslaved bot h some of t he population of Spar ta as
well as many of the neighboring Messenians. Th ese slaves,
known as helots, worked the land for their Spartan masters
and were required to turn over to them a large quantity
of produce. Other city-states, such as Syracuse, and some
Cretan communities developed similar systems of exploi-
tation. In some times and places estate owners would hire
free laborers to work on their farms either on a regular basis
or at times of peak demand such as during harvest times.
Unfortunately, the upper-class Greek writers tended to look38 agriculture: Greece