be regarded as literature. Indian literature traces its origins to
the Vedas, the main Hindu sacred writings, which were writ-
ten in Sanskrit. To these have been added later prose com-
mentaries called the Brahmanas and the Upanishads. Th e
Vedas have been regularly updated; although some parts date
to 1400 b.c.e., most come from the fi rst to seventh centuries
c.e., with other sections being added as late as 1200 c.e.
Th e Vedas, written in archaic Sanskrit, represent the re-
ligious thinking of the Indo-Aryan peoples who settled India
in the period 1400–1200 b.c.e. Forming the basis of Hindu
beliefs, the Vedas refer to the cosmic forces, such as fi re, the
sun, war, storms, rain, and creation. In them various gods,
such as Indra and Vishnu, appear to explain these concepts.
Initially these ideas were remembered orally, possibly with
the help of brief manuscripts, but later were written down.
As a result, there are several diff erent versions of the work.
Th e Upanishads build on some of the ideas in the Vedas and
take their name from the term that means “sitting at the feet
of a teacher.” In all there are 108 surviving Upanishads, and
they have a special philosophical concern with developing the
idea of a supreme being and directing knowledge at a reunion
between mortals and that being.
Th e other great epics of Sanskrit literature are the Ma-
habharata and Ramayana. Th e former is a heroic epic based
on a battle for supremacy between two families of cousins,
the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Th e story evolved consider-
ably during the period 400 b.c.e.–200 c.e. and runs to about
100,000 couplets (or about 1.8 million words), making it the
longest surviving epic of this period; it is about seven times
as long as the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, making it also
the longest surviving epic poem in the world. Th e date for its
setting is said to be 1302 b.c.e., and according to legend, its
authorship is attributed to the sage Vyasa. It begins with a
prince who is blind and is passed over for succession to the
throne by his father, the king. Rivalry starts between the
prince’s descendants and those of his younger brother, who
takes the throne. Th is rivalry leads to a series of great battles
that shows the balance between good and evil and, like the
Iliad and the Odyssey, serves to teach people about the prob-
lems people face in life, including romance, greed, valor, and
human frailties. Th e story does not end with the “great” battle
but continues with details of bickering following the battle,
further infi ghting among members of the successful faction,
and continued troubles. It ends with the life of Krishna. Th ere
are numerous subplots, with many characters from the con-
tending families and also gods and demons. One aim of the
poem is to elucidate the four main goals in human existence:
kama (“pleasure”), artha (“wealth”), dharma (“duty”), and
moksha (“liberation”).
Th e Ramayana dates to 300 b.c.e., though a few histori-
ans believe that some parts are possibly 200 years older. Al-
together it consists of 24,000 couplets. It tells of the romance
of Prince (later King) Rama in Ajodhya (modern-day Oudh),
from his royal birth through to his falling in love with Sita.
Rama manages to bend the great bow of Siva in a test of
strength (showing some similarities to the end of the Odys-
sey). Rama is then banished to the forests with his new wife
and also his brother. Th ere Sita is seized by Ravana, the 10-
headed king of the demons, and taken to Lanka (modern-day
Sri Lanka).
Rama then allies himself with Hanuman, the mon-
key god, and a war ensues, with Rama seeking to rescue
Sita and Ravana and calling on a collection of demons to
protect him. Th e monkeys attack Lanka, eventually taking
the island. Ravana is killed, and Sita is rescued. Although
the story revolves around Rama, the loyalty of his brother,
Laksamana, and the cunning of Hanuman are both major
factors in the story. In addition to these main characters,
numerous other Indian gods make brief appearances, and
the Ramayana serves to introduce them to the reader. How-
ever, because many people of ancient times were unable to
read, the literary tradition quickly lent itself to theater, with
the Ramayana being relatively easy to perform and the ex-Sculpted panel depicting Vishnu Trivikrama, eastern India (10th
century c.e.); the myth of Vishnu Trivikrama appears in the earliest of
Indian texts, the Rig-Veda. (© Th e Trustees of the British Museum)650 literature: Asia and the Pacific