arid environment. Th e earliest farmers used groundwater to
irrigate their crops; they planted their fi elds near springs and
lakes and counted on the high water table to keep the plants
alive. Later farmers built irrigation canals and dams to hold
water until they needed it for their fi elds.
EASTERN UNITED STATES
Th e Native Americans who lived in the eastern United States
invented agriculture independently of those who lived in
the Southwest. Th ey domesticated their fi rst plants between
2500 and 1500 b.c.e., focusing on local seed plants. Th e four
so-called founder crops of the eastern United States were
sunfl owers, sumpweed (a plant related to the dais and, grown
for its seeds), goosefoot (related to spinach), and a small
squash that provided seeds. Th is squash was the predecessor
of the modern acorn squash and summer squashes.
All four of these crops were highly nutritious, compris-
ing 17 to 32 percent protein, compared with wheat’s 8 to 14
percent. Both sumpweed and sunfl ower seeds are high in oil
content, providing healthy fats with dense concentrations of
calories and vitamins. Despite their nutrition, though, these
four crops could not sustain communities that survived
solely by farming. All of the crops had disadvantages that
discouraged farmers. Sumpweed, for example, is related to
ragweed and causes hay fever and skin rashes; it also smells
bad. None of the founder crops could produce anything like
the agricultural surplus of wheat or corn. (Wheat comes from
the Middle East and Europe and did not arrive in the Ameri-
cas until it was carried across the ocean by European settlers
during the 16th century. Consequently, Americans of that pe-
riod continued to support themselves mainly by hunting wild
game and gathering wild plants.)
Between 500 and 200 b.c.e. the eastern tribes began
cultivating three more seed crops: knotweed, maygrass, and
barley. All three of these plants have very small seeds that do
not yield nearly the harvest volumes of major grains such as
wheat. Although people supplemented their diets with these
new grains, they still had to rely on wild food sources for
most of their nutrition and calories. Would-be farmers had
no other options. Th ey could domesticate only those plants
that already grew in the area, and none of the native species
of the eastern United States lent itself to agriculture in the
way wheat and barley did. Otherwise, however, conditions
in this region were excellent for farming; the soil was rich
and the water supply ample. Th e climate was pleasant and
encouraged the growth of many plants. Th e people living in
the region knew their local plants and did what they could to
domesticate them. Th e Hopewell culture that existed in Ohio
from 200 b.c.e. to 400 c.e. supported itself in large part with
locally domesticated crops, but within the region there were
simply not the resources needed to expand agriculture, so
most societies remained small groups of hunter-gatherers.
Mexican crops did not reach the eastern United States
until after 1 c.e. Corn arrived around 200 c.e., but it was
not until 1100 that American Indians began growing the
nutritious Mexican trio of corn, beans, and squash. In
many areas these three Mexican crops replaced local crops
entirely. At that time the human population increased rap-
idly, as it typically does when societies settle down and
adopt an agricultural lifestyle. People began building the
larger towns that traditionally accompany the advent of
large-scale agriculture.FARMING IMPLEMENTS
All ancient American civilizations were Stone Age civiliza-
tions, meaning that they used stone to make most of their
tools and had not yet discovered how to use metals. Th ey also
used wood and bone to make handles and tools, clay to make
pottery, and straw to make baskets. Th e earliest American
farmers used pointed sticks to dig the soil. As they became
more expert at farming, they made more complicated tools
such as hoes, usually with long wooden handles and stone
blades tied on with leather cords. Th ese implements were
designed to make long days in the fi elds more comfortable
and effi cient, eliminating the need for farmers to get down
on their hands and knees to work the soil. People probably
used woven baskets to collect their crops at harvest time, and
they stored dried corn and beans in clay containers. One im-
portant agricultural device was a kind of mill called a quern,
a fl at stone used for grinding corn. A person would place a
handful of corn on the quern and use another stone to crush
it into dust. Th is was a very laborious process, and women in
ancient American agricultural societies typically spent many
hours every day grinding corn.AN ABSENCE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS
Aside from Andean llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs, as well
as dogs in North America, Americans did not domesticate
mammals. Th e Americas did not have any large mammals
that could be used to plow fi elds. People had to do all the
plowing and tilling by hand. As a result, American farm-
ers tended to grow many plants in single fi elds, letting bean
plants twine up cornstalks, for example; in contrast, wheat
farmers in the Middle East and rice farmers in Asia tended to
dedicate single fi elds to one grain crop.See also building techniques and materials; calendars
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and exchange; war and conquest.48 agriculture: The Americas