cestors who had developed a distinctive fi shing and agrarian
culture in the islands of Tonga and Samoa. Th ere is also gen-
eral agreement on a chronological sequence for the migration
of the Polynesian peoples.
Archaeological evidence and DNA analysis suggest that
early humans had migrated (by land and sea) to New Guinea
and Australia by at least 60,000 years ago. In Australia these
migrants maintained a hunter-gatherer way of life until the
arrival of Europeans in the 17th and 18th centuries, but in
New Guinea several groups adopted an agrarian lifestyle.
From about 1600 b.c.e. members of the so-called Lapita cul-
ture began to migrate from New Guinea in Melanesia farther
east to Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga, and it was at the eastern edge
of this region (that is, in Samoa and Tonga) that a distinctive
Polynesian culture emerged.
By about 300 b.c.e. migrants from Samoa and Tonga
had discovered and colonized several island groups farther
to the east, including the Cook Islands, Tahiti-nui, and Hiva
(or the Marquesas). Some 600 years later (by 300 c.e.) mi-
grants from (probably) the Marquesas discovered and settled
Easter Island, and sometime within the next century (by ca.
400 c.e.) voyagers from the Cook Islands, Tahiti-nui, and
the Marquesas discovered and colonized Hawaii. Th e fi nal
wave of Polynesian migration and colonization took place
sometime between 800 and 1000, when groups of migrants
from the Society Islands or the Cook Islands settled Aotearoa
(New Zealand).
Th e pattern of migration outlined here is supported by
ethnobotanical evidence, particularly through the incidence
and spread of diff erent plants (taro, breadfruit, banana, co-
conut, and sweet potato) and animals (pig, dog, chicken)
from the western Pacifi c through central Polynesia and on to
Hawaii. Linguistic evidence also supports the direction and
dates of the migratory pattern, with the Hawaiian language
being closely related to the Marquesan language (proto–Cen-
tral Eastern Polynesian). Both languages also share similar
phonological changes from Proto–Central Eastern Polyne-
sian (the hypothetical original language). Computer simu-
lations likewise support the idea that Hawaii was settled by
migrants from the Marquesas, as does archaeology; artifacts
found at early Hawaiian sites are very similar to those found
in the Marquesas. Th e colonization of the islands of the Pa-
cifi c by Polynesian maritime peoples remains one of the most
extraordinary examples of long-distance migration in hu-
man history.
EUROPE
BY SUSAN MALIN-BOYCE
Human migration is the term used for both voluntary and
involuntary population movements. Th roughout prehistory
and into the modern era people have chosen to relocate, have
left their land and homes under duress, or have been traded
as slaves. For prehistoric migrations it is generally impossible
to ascertain whether movement was elected or forced. Recon-
structing the timing of migrations and numbers of migrants
is also largely unachievable. Even a massive movement of
peoples leaves almost no trace for archaeologists to recover.
Th erefore, migration is generally inferred from patterns of
resettlement, the appearance of new subsistence regimes, and
the widespread distributions of new technologies. Th e bulk
of the evidence for change is interpreted from the analysis
of material remains. For prehistoric Europe early migratory
expansion populated regions that had never been occupied
by people. Th ese colonization episodes are frequently identi-
fi ed by such data as the fi rst appearance of tools or settlement
traces and in rare cases by burials. Later events are marked
by dramatic changes in material culture, and debate is fre-
quently focused on the mechanism of these apparent material
and social transformations. Analogy is used to infer the scale
and form of ideological conquest or social emulation. His-
torical migrations provide ample material for explanations
that rely on analogy.
Causes that contributed to prehistoric migrations are
various and sometimes appear contradictory. Th ey included
environmental factors such as climate changes caused by gla-
cial advance and retreat or by drought. Warfare was another
primary vector of change, forcing the abandonment of whole
regions in advance of warring armies, such as the Huns by
395 c.e. Wars also attracted mercenaries, and eligible mem-
bers of populations frequently went to war for the potential
rewards—the plunder used to compensate armed volunteers.
Mercenaries may have left an area in large numbers, as in
the Marne region during the fi rst historical migration of the
Celts around 400 b.c.e.
Trade is an equally attractive draw for people who have
had access to certain commodities. When a trade infrastruc-
ture is disrupted and the fl ow of goods stops, large groups of
people may go in search of resupply. Th e sack of Rome around
390 b.c.e. may be attributable to such motivations. During
the protohistoric period—the period during which fi rsthand
and secondhand accounts were written by literate peoples
about events involving preliterate populations—there is evi-
dence that groups sometimes migrated seasonally, probably
to alleviate subsistence pressure on their home territories. In
these cases warring parties crossed into regions controlled by
other groups and pillaged or extorted provisions on a tem-
porary basis. Harassment of the resident population ceased
when the interlopers were routed in combat or bought off. For
mass movements such as the spread of agriculture or early
migrations from Africa, combinations of factors both pushed
and pulled people into and across Europe. In the examples
provided here these factors are explored based on the archae-
ological record and accompanying anthropological theory.
Several major migration events are presented using a
somewhat arbitrary two-part classifi cation scheme: fi rst, mi-
grations that colonized Europe, and second, migrations that
transformed preexisting social organizations via the introduc-
tion of new technologies or ideologies. Even within this sim-
ple bi-partite scheme there is overlap. Th e movement of Homomigration and population movements: Europe 707