In 108 b.c.e. the Chinese established their fi rst Korean
colony, the city of Lolang. From Lolang, Chinese customs fi l-
tered through Korea, and it may be from the infl uence of the
Chinese that Koreans developed disciplined armies, notable
for their courage and their quick maneuverability. Th e most
advanced militaries in Southeast Asia before the medieval
era were probably those of Nam Viet and Funan. Th e Viets
came from the area of the Yangtze River, from which some
migrated to what is now northern Vietnam and southern
China in 333 b.c.e. In 207 b.c.e. they were conquered by a
Chinese general who created Nam Viet, meaning “Southern
Viet.” It is possible its military was organized like the Chinese
military. Funan stretched from the Mekong Delta in South
Vietnam to central Cambodia, from the 100s to mid 500s c.e.
It fought oft en with tribes in South Vietnam. It had strong
ties to India and probably followed Indian military customs.
Little is known about military aff airs in Oceania before the
emergence of a kingdom in Tonga in the medieval era.
EUROPE
BY CARYN E. NEUMANN
In all societies of the ancient world the military played a criti-
cal role as the protector and shaper of political and cultural
life. While the importance of the military in ancient Europe
is well known, little evidence of the military’s actual opera-
tion has survived the passage of time. Th e preliterate societies
of Europe did not leave written sources, and while the ar-
chaeological record provides evidence for warfare in the form
of weapons and violent death, it does not reveal much about
fi ghting organizations until relatively late in prehistory.
What is known is that prehistoric societies in Europe
generally fought to dominate other groups and to compel
their surrender of various forms of wealth. Territorial con-
trol was probably not a basic issue, since beyond the level of
the farmstead and village there was little sense of fi xed po-
litical or ethnic boundaries. Most military actions probably
involved raiding parties that were composed of individuals
who were taking a leave from farming or craft production.
Aft er doing their damage and carrying off their booty, they
then returned to their normal pursuits.
During the late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age in north-
ern and western Europe, around 2000 b.c.e., there is evidence
of the emergence of a warrior aristocracy, an elite group of
individuals who shared common values of fi ghting and ritual
feasting and drinking. Th e archer found buried at Amesbury
near Stonehenge with his drinking cup and arrowheads may
have been a member of this group, whose burials have been
found throughout northwestern Europe. Archaeologists are
only beginning to understand the nature of this elite group
and its role in Bronze Age society, and at this point it is un-
clear whether it controlled any signifi cant numbers of spe-
cialist fi ghters.
Th ere is more and more evidence during the Iron Age
of the activity of organized raiding parties. In coastal areas
these parties moved by boat, and the Hjortspring boat found
loaded with shields and swords in Denmark is probably the
remains of one such vessel. In fact, it may have belonged
to the losers in a confrontation that took place around 350
b.c.e., since the circumstances of this fi nd suggest that it was
a victory sacrifi ce. Many bogs and lakes in northern Europe
have yielded large numbers of weapons, some deliberately
broken, that were deposited as off erings by victorious fi ght-
ing groups.
When the Romans entered northern and western Eu-
rope, they encountered native armies whose organization
and fi ghting styles were very diff erent from theirs. While the
Greeks and Romans embraced a disciplined style of warfare,
the ancient peoples of Europe continued to cling to fi ghting
styles that had changed little since the Bronze Age. Styles
arose from beliefs and states of mind. Th ese styles became
evident in the choice of dress, weaponry, and fi ghting tech-
nique. One style involved berserk warriors. Th ese men, es-
pecially common among the Celts, threw off their clothing
when entering a trance of recklessness that goaded them to
awesome eff orts.
Another style of fi ghting involved the imitation of fero-
cious animals. European warriors, especially those from the
Germanic nations, were entranced by the idea of changing
into animals. Th ey sought to have the qualities of animals,
such as ferocity, speed, stealth, and the ability to frighten an
enemy. Wolves were the most popular warrior model through-
out Europe, though boars, bucks, martens, and horses were
also common choices. Bear warriors seem to be mostly Ger-
manic, for few are known among the Celtic tribes.
Warriors who imitated animals were useful because, in
ancient times, combat was oft en reduced to brutal hand-to-
hand fi ghting. Warriors dressed as animals believed that they
possessed the fi ghting abilities of those animals, whether
wolves or tigers. As a result of such fi ghting, there was con-
stant pressure to recruit beyond the bounds of one’s own eth-
nic group or state in order to acquire the manpower needed
to meet or exceed the enemy’s ranks of fi ghters. Th e Goths are
typical, in that the Goth army that crossed the lower Danube
in 376 c.e. consisted of several subethnic groups of Goths (in-
cluding the Tervingi and Greuthungi) along with Huns and
Alans. When Romans fought civil wars, they oft en recruited
so-called barbarians from along the frontier to attack rivals.
Alans, Goths, Huns, Iberians, and Isaurians were all recruited
on a large scale by the Romans.
Th e fi ghting in ancient Europe did not spare civilian
populations. Many of the military attacks were simply mas-
sacres of people in villages and rural farmsteads for the pur-
pose of terrorizing civilian populations. Rape was part of
these attacks. In an era when soldiers did not receive regular
pay, soldiers were oft en recruited with the promise of plun-
der—including sexual plunder—as their reward. Th is form
of payment was nonetheless regulated because uncontrolled
pillage meant, in eff ect, that the control of the army had been
lost. Rape had military value because it wounded the honor ofMilitary: Europe 731