As architecture became more developed, builders had to
understand such elements as drainage systems, and in time
they learned to incorporate such features as arches, vaulted
ceilings, domes, and so on. Stonemasons were highly skilled
artisans who carved stone ornaments, including statues, that
became part of the structure, and other artists painted mu-
rals and frescoes that enhanced the aesthetic appeal of the
structure. City planners learned to arrange buildings in a way
that increased their usefulness. For example, as cities grew
and trade between cities and kingdom developed, architects
arranged buildings in clusters surrounded by fortifi ed walls
and gates, to protect the population from marauders who
might seize the city’s wealth. Because it was not possible to
move large amounts of earth, buildings had to be arranged
around natural features of the terrain.
Because architecture was a community pursuit that re-
quired large numbers of workers and vast sums of money,
most of the buildings that survive from ancient times were
palaces for royalty, temples, or tombs. Royal palaces were a
testament to the power and authority of the king or other
ruler, and because they were as magnifi cent as temples, they
served to remind the people that the ruler derived his au-
thority from the gods. Temples were large and elaborate,
much like the mosques and Christian churches built during
the medieval period, to become a focus of worship for the
particular god or goddess in whose honor the temple was
built. Building such temples in parts of the world was con-
sidered a religious act. Tombs took many forms, in particu-
lar that of pyramids, but these pyramids and other public
structures oft en served—or may have served—other pur-
poses, such as those of scientifi c and astronomical observa-
tories and calendars.
AFRICA
BY MICHAEL J. O’NEAL
Studies of the architecture of ancient Africa tend to feature
most prominently that of ancient Egypt, located on the north
of the continent adjacent to the Sahara Desert. Th e remainder
of the continent, particularly in the context of discussions of
ancient life, is generally referred to collectively as “sub-Saha-
ran Africa,” or that part of Africa that lies south of the mas-
sive Sahara Desert.
Because of a lack of written records and because the king-
doms and nations of sub-Saharan Africa in general never
achieved the prominence or lasted as long as ancient Egypt,
not a great deal is known about the architecture of this vast
region. Much of the architecture has disappeared, leaving ar-
chaeologists with fragments and ruins, oft en just foundations,
to study. Oft en they are required to make inferences about
ancient African architecture on the basis of limited evidence.
Th en, too, many ancient architectural sites were lost when the
Great Aswān Dam was constructed on the Nile River, fl ooding
vast tracts of land to form Lake Nasser. Nonetheless, archae-
ologists have discovered a number of intriguing monuments,
ruins, and, in some cases, intact structures that provide insight
into the architectural skills of the ancient Africans.
Much of the architecture of sub-Saharan African was
strongly infl uenced by that of the Egyptian dynasties. Just as
ancient Egypt was the home of towering obelisks (a towering
pillar that rises to a point), royal tombs, palaces, and the pyr-
amids, so can similar structures, or their remains, be found
in other parts of Africa as the infl uence of Egypt spread and
grew. Infl uences can also be traced back to the Carthaginians
and the Middle East.ETHIOPIA
Th e early history of Ethiopia, sometimes called Abyssinia, is
dominated by the kingdom of Axum. Th e kingdom originat-
ed in about the second century b.c.e. and reached the height
of its power from the fourth through the seventh centuries
c.e. Axum controlled most of modern-day Ethiopia as well
as parts of Egypt, the Sudan, Eritrea, and parts of the Mid-
dle East, and its infl uence rivaled that of the empires of the
Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, and Byzantines. It was a major
trading nation, serving as a link between Asia and the Medi-
terranean region. It was also the fi rst African state to issue its
own coins. Archaeologists have uncovered the ruins of res-
ervoirs, temples, and cities that attest to the infl uence of the
kingdom, including the ruins at Yeha, a pre-Axumite king-
dom. But perhaps the most intriguing remains from ancient
Axum are its black granite obelisks.
Yeha lies in a remote part of what is called the Tigray
region, several hours by car from the city of Axum. Visitors
are willing to make the trip to see the remains of the Temple
of the Moon, built in about 500 b.c.e. While little is known
about the people who built the temple, the ruins themselves
are striking. Th e roof and upper stories are missing, but the
remains are nearly 40 feet tall. Th e inward-reclining walls are
made of sandstone blocks that fi t together with near-perfect
precision; ancient Africans believed that the temple could be
fi lled with water and not a single drop would leak out, despite
the fact that no mortar was used to connect the blocks.
Axum is regarded as the successor kingdom to Yeha in
that part of Ethiopia. Th e most prominent architectural site
in Axum features its obelisks, carved beginning in about 400
c.e., which were among the tallest stone monuments in the
ancient world. Th e largest one, which has fallen and lies on
the ground in six pieces, would have stood nearly 110 feet
high. Th e tallest standing obelisk is about 78 feet tall.
Archaeologists have long been puzzled by the carvings
on this and other nearby obelisks. Although the obelisk was
carved out of a single block of stone, it is covered with carv-
ings that give it the appearance of having 13 stories, each
“fl oor” with its own “windows” carved into the stone. At the
base are carvings of “doors,” which even have locks and door
knockers carved into them. Archaeologists are not certain
about the purpose of the obelisks. Th at they were erected near
tombs suggests that they may have been built as memorials to
dead kings and queens and may have represented stairwaysarchitecture: Africa 53