inspired Nubian builders. Like the pyramids of Egypt, they
are built with stepped stone layers, or courses, but they are
not as tall, ranging in height from about 20 to 100 feet, and
they have a much smaller “footprint,” meaning that they do
not take up as much ground—usually an area of about 25
feet square. Th ey are much more steeply pitched, rising at an
angle of about 68 to 70 degrees, so they appear more pointed
compared with the Egyptian pyramids. At the base of the
pyramids are small temples.
Mention should be made of another Meroitic site, the
temple at Faras. Faras became an important town in the
Meroitic kingdom in the third century c.e. On the west bank
of the Nile stood a temple constructed during the reign of
the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen (r. 1333–1323 b.c.e.) as
well as a chapel to the Egyptian god Hathor cut into the rock
and probably built during the reign of Egyptian pharaoh
Th utmose III (r. 1479–1425 b.c.e.) and enlarged under Tut-
ankhamen and Ramses II (r. 1290–1224 b.c.e.). Today only
ruins remain. Th e symmetrical temple included a square
courtyard with a portico on two sides and two rows of col-
umns. It also included a hypostyle hall with a sanctuary and
12 columns. (A hypostyle hall is one with a fl at ceiling sup-
ported by columns.)
THE STONE PILLARS OF NAMORATUNGA
In southern Ethiopia and northwestern Kenya was a commu-
nity of people called the Borana. Near Lake Turkana in Ke-
nya archaeologists have studied a cluster of 19 magnetic stone
pillars. Th ese pillars are referred to as Namoratunga, a word
that means “stone people” in the local language. Writing on
the stones is markedly similar to writings found at other ar-
chaeological sites and thus indicates that the pillars were con-
structed in about 300 b.c.e.
What is intriguing about these pillars is that they seem
to form an ancient calendar. Th e Borana developed a lunar
calendar that was based on the positions and movements of
seven stars or star groups in conjunction with the moon. Th e
result was a calendar of 354 days and 12 months, with a leap
month added every three years. Th e modern names of the
stars and star clusters are Triangulum, Pleiades, Aldebaran,
Bellatrix, Orion’s Belt, Saiph, and Sirius. According to Borana
reckoning, a new year began when a new moon was observed
in conjunction with Triangulum, the next month began when
the new moon was seen in conjunction with the Pleiades, and
so on. Each day had its own name, but since there were only
27 day names, the Borana started over when they arrived at
the end of the list.
Astronomers and archaeologists have noted, though,
that some of these stars and star clusters are invisible to the
naked eye when they are too close to a new moon. Some re-
searchers suggest that the 19 Namoratunga pillars were in-
tended to mark the positions of these stars. Using statistical
analyses, archaeologists have determined that there is only
a small chance that the pillars could have marked the rising
of the stars by chance. For them, this is strong evidence that
the cluster of pillars was an astronomical observatory and
hence a calendar.EGYPT
BY MICHAEL J. O’NEAL
Historians credit the ancient Egyptians with teaching hu-
mankind how to build. By trial and error over many centu-
ries, the Egyptians learned how to design and build structures
such as palaces, temples and temple gates, courtyards, and
pyramids as well as homes. Until the rise of Egyptian civili-
zation, people lived in makeshift structures made from what-
ever materials were locally available, including mud bricks.
Th ese structures did not last very long, so the communities in
which they were built tended to be impermanent.
Aft er the Egyptians, people constructed cities and homes
that were fi xed and settled. Th is led to a greater sense of
homeland, of a specifi c place where people could remain per-
manently and develop the fruits of civilization. Permanent
construction kept people in one place over a long period of
time, as a structure was begun in the reign of one king and
then continued during the reign of one or more of his succes-
sors. In many cases, by the time the structure was completed
a century or more aft er it was begun, it was time to begin
expanding or refurbishing it, so construction was an ongoing
activity. Th e most famous architectural wonders of ancient
Egypt are the pyramids, many of them located on the Giza
Plateau and “guarded” by the Sphinx.
Probably the most recognizable element of ancient Egyp-
tian architecture is the chain of some eighty pyramids and
pyramid-like structures that stands like a row of mountains
along the west bank of the Nile River. All are on the west bank
because they were probably used primarily as tombs and the
Egyptians buried their dead west of the Nile, in the direction
of the setting sun. Although most are within about fi ft y miles
of Cairo to the north, others can be found near Aswān to the
south. Some were never completed, and most had to be dug
out of the desert’s shift ing sands by explorers and archaeolo-
gists. Most were constructed during the Old Kingdom, from
about 2685 to 2180 b.c.e., and during the Middle Kingdom,
from about 2125 to 1648 b.c.e.THE STEP PYRAMID AT SAQQARA
Th e oldest surviving stone structure in the world is the Step
Pyramid at Saqqara, the fi rst pyramid to be constructed. It
was built for the pharaoh Djoser sometime aft er 2700 b.c.e.,
during the Th ird Dynasty. It is called the Step Pyramid be-
cause its six tiers, each one smaller than the one beneath it,
give the pyramid the appearance of a fl ight of stairs. Th e Step
Pyramid represented a major shift in Egyptian architecture.
Th is was essentially the fi rst major building constructed of
stone rather than mud brick. Further, the complex system
of tunnels and chambers that lie beneath the pyramid itself
suggest a major leap forward in the design and construction
of buildings. Many archaeologists believe that the pyramid56 architecture: Egypt