AFRICA
BY LEAH A. J. COHEN
In very early times all human groups in Africa lived primar-
ily by hunting, gathering, or fi shing or a combination of these
occupations. Based on studies of modern hunter-gatherer
groups, it is thought that in ancient times women probably
were responsible for the daily tasks of child care and gather-
ing wild roots and seeds, while men hunted, but on a more
periodic basis than gathering was done. Th ese same studies
reveal that women’s gathering eff orts produced most of the
food consumed on a daily basis and that in general the hunter-
gatherer lifestyle was less grueling than that of the early ag-
riculturalists. Th ese livelihoods were practiced throughout
Africa from the Berbers in the far north to the San and Khoi-
khoi in the far south.
Domestication of plants and animals (and the birth of
farming and herding) occurred gradually, no doubt starting
with hunter-gatherers’ experimenting with planting while
still depending on wild food sources for survival. Such ex-
perimentation may have begun as early as 6,000 to 10,000
years ago in central and northern Africa. Climatic conditions
changed in northern Africa around 4,500 years ago, resulting
in an environment that was less able to support the growing
human population through hunting and gathering alone and
providing a strong incentive for human groups to become
better at farming and herding. Initially, humans broadened
their livelihood activities to include hunting, gathering, herd-
ing, and agriculture. Eventually, some groups became princi-
pally farmers and others principally herders, while still others
remained hunter-gatherers. In general, adoption of farming
and herding moved from north to south. It is thought that
herding did not become common in the southern Africa Cape
until about 2,000 years ago. Specialization into farming and
herding was possible only with trade among these diff erent
groups, which initiated localized trade networks throughout
in ancient Africa.
Over time, better agricultural techniques throughout
Africa allowed for surplus crops, which, in turn, spawned
further labor specialization. Individuals and families who
had skills other than farming could trade their products
for food. As local trade increased, new occupations contin-
ued to emerge in the more densely populated areas, such as
Nubia (eastern Africa), Axum (eastern Africa), and Jenne-
Jeno (western Africa). Th ere grew a demand for builders,
woodworkers, masons, ironworkers and metalsmiths, jew-
elry makers, religious experts, and government offi cials.
Some people made their living as scribes in literate societies,
such as ancient Ethiopia aft er the fourth century b.c.e. It is
thought that prior to the development of grand empires in
ancient Africa, aside from hunting, gathering, farming, and
fi shing, people also engaged in the “part-time” occupations
of healing; storytelling, from which the griot (a musician-
entertainer who specialized in tribal histories) traditions
emerged; and artwork.
Pottery making became desirable with the adoption of
farming and more sedentary lifestyles. Many of the more ru-
ral farming human groups and villages acquired the technol-
ogy to make pottery. Some of the earliest examples of pottery
(though it was not necessarily made by full-time potters) are
from the central Sahara (dating to about 9,500 years ago) and
in Nabta Playa, just west of the Nile (dating to about 8,000
years ago). Most of the civilizations in ancient Africa em-
ployed skilled potters. Two notable examples are the Nok and
the inhabitants of Jenne-jeno. Th e Nok, who lived in present-
day Nigeria around 500 b.c.e., are known for their terra-cot-
tas. Th e potters of Jenne-jeno (ca. 200 b.c.e.) also were highly
skilled and left mounds of pottery fragments from various
types of vessels.
Some people made their living as masons. Nubian masons
made homes out of brick and also created pyramids similar to
those in Egypt in the 11th century b.c.e. Th e most impressive
stone sculptures are the tomb markers from Axum: Th e tallest
is 79 feet high and intricately carved to resemble a multistory
building, showcasing the skill of these early craft speople and
the extent of the stone-carving industry. It would have taken
a team of mason months or years to create these sculptures.
Th e weaving industry of ancient Africa has been dated
to at least as early as 3200 b.c.e. in Nubia with the Kush, a
civilization that fl ourished from about 300 b.c.e. to 500 c.e.
Weaving tools that have been uncovered in these areas in-
clude spindles and loom weights. Although evidence dates
many of Africa’s weaving modern weaving traditions to me-
dieval times, they certainly have their roots in a long his-
tory of weaving in Africa. Sculptures from the ancient Nok
civilization depict cloth and indicate that a weaving industry
was present at the time there as well. Archaeologists have un-
covered the remains of loom weights and spindle whorls at
Jenne-Jeno.
Th e jewelry-making tradition has long been a part of
culture and economic life in many places in Africa. Jewelry
makers in Jenne-jeno used imported iron and Roman beads
in their craft. At the very end of the ancient period (400 c.e.)
copper and bronze were also used in Jenne-Jeno to create or-
naments. Many of the other civilization centers, among them,
Axum and Nubia, had a jewelry-making industry.
Trade fl ourished and local trade networks became vital
during this period. By around 800 to 600 b.c.e. the trading
settlement of Carthage (on the Mediterranean in north-
ern Africa) began to bustle with the activity of importing
and exporting goods to and from the Middle East, Europe,
and northern Africa. Carthage’s merchants were supported
by farms worked either by slaves or by independent Berber
farmers who sold their produce in the city. Nomadic pastoral-
ists also came to urban areas to trade their goods. In general,
trade in Africa during ancient times was based on barter and
there were very few professional merchants. Later, as coinage
systems developed, a merchant class emerged.
Th e Iron Age is oft en cited as beginning in Africa around
the sixth to seventh centuries b.c.e., fi rst in Nubia with the808 occupations: Africa