yard. Th ese drab cells evolved from the caves in which monks
had lived in previous centuries. Another, called the chaitya,
was a set of halls that could be used when the main outdoor
stupa could not because of bad weather.
One of the interesting elements of the chaitya is that they
were built in a manner similar to older Vedic architecture, but
in stone rather than in wood. Th us, the chaitya have barrel-
shaped vaulted roofs, entrances shaped like horseshoes, and
railings. Archaeologists speculate that the craft smen who built
the structure were reluctant to give up the techniques they had
used for building wooden structures when they turned to the
use of stone. In fact, much of the cave architecture of ancient
India, such as the caves at the city of Karle, look in most ways
as though they have been carved out of wood, right down to
the “joints” that were carved into the stone. Other early tem-
ples, such as the modest temple at Tigawa near modern-day
Jabalpur, use a great deal of stone, including a stone slab for
the roof, giving the temples an almost cavelike quality, though
much of the stone is intricately carved.
Th ese and similar structures were precursors to an era
marked by the construction of magnifi cent Buddhist tem-
ples under the reign of the Gupta Dynasty, which reached
the height of its power in about 400 c.e. During this period
builders turned away from their “wood carving” approach
to stone and began to employ techniques more suitable for
stone and masonry construction. Th is gave rise to a style of
architecture that was radically new. Until this time Indian ar-
chitecture had been relatively simple and impermanent. Th e
earliest Indians worshipped in the open, then in buildings
constructed with reeds and bamboo, then in wooden post-
and-beam buildings, and fi nally in stone stupas. Under the
Gupta Dynasty, though, architects began to develop the core
principles that led to more magnifi cent temples during the
later medieval period.
One early Gupta temple is a small Shiva temple in the
Jhansi district of India, in the town of Deogarh. (A Shiva
temple was one dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva.) One
noteworthy characteristic of this temple is that above the
central worship area was erected a raised, pyramid-shaped
structure that is estimated to have been 40 feet tall (much
of the temple is lost). Th e temple also has four porticoes, or
covered porches, one facing in each compass direction. Th e
temple is also of interest because of the elaborate carvings
on the exterior pillars.
ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT KOREA
Archaeologists have discovered the remains of Korean civi-
lization dating back to the fi ft h millennium b.c.e. Among
the remains are those of homes. Th e earliest homes on the
Korean Peninsula were pits in the earth. Later homes used
earthen walls with thatched roofs, and still later homes were
made of logs.
Among the architectural sites that have been excavated
is that of the city of Choson, which emerged in the fourth
century b.c.e. and survived to the third century c.e. Th ere
archaeologists have uncovered the remains of colonial head-
quarters buildings and tombs. Most of the offi cial build-
ings were constructed of brick and wood, and their roofs
were tiled. Tombs include the Tomb of the Painted Basket,
a wooden structure with a single chamber and a large num-
ber of treasures. Tombs of kings and members of the upper
classes have also been found in Koguryo, Kungn ae-song,
and Pyongyang, which served as district capitals. In about 18
b.c.e. the city of Paekche was founded, and it, too, is the site
of numerous building sites and tombs. Prominent among the
city’s sites was a central pagoda with an entrance gate, a main
hall, and other rooms laid out along a central axis, refl ecting
the infl uence of Chinese architecture.ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE ON THE
PACIFIC ISLANDS
Not a great deal is known about the architectural achieve-
ments of the peoples who inhabited the four major regions
and some 25,000 islands that make up Oceania: Australasia
(including Australia and New Zealand), Micronesia (includ-
ing Guam, the Mariana Islands, and the Marshall Islands),
Melanesia (including Fiji, New Guinea, Indonesia, and the
Solomon Islands), and Polynesia (including Samoa, the Cook
Islands, and Tonga). Settlement of these islands was a slow
process over long periods of time, as people had to travel from
far-fl ung locations by boat. Most of the region’s architectural
record dates back, at the earliest, to about 500 c.e. However,
the remains that do exist demonstrate an ability on the part of
Oceanic peoples to adapt their architecture to their environ-
ment, using wood, coral, lava rock, reeds, and other materials
that happened to be at hand on a particular island.EUROPE
BY JAMES A. CORRICK
Ten thousand years ago the people of Europe lived a nomadic
life as they followed game and searched for other food. Th ese
hunter-gatherers established temporary camps from which to
hunt, fi sh, and forage. Th eir dwellings were as temporary as
their camps and were easily assembled from materials found
at hand, such as the wood and bark of trees, stones, and ani-
mal hides. Th ese early shelters were the beginning of Euro-
pean architecture.TENTS AND HUTS
Th e most common shelters for early Europeans were tents
that were fashioned in a variety of shapes—circular, oval,
rectangular, and square. Whatever the shape, each tent had
a wooden frame from which hides hung to form walls. Some-
times stones were placed along the bottom of the hide walls
to hold them in place. European hunter-gatherers also built
wooden huts, which had the same variety of shapes as tents.
Th e walls were wooden poles or stakes covered with bark,
reeds, or hides in order to add further protection from wind
and rain. Entry was through an opening left in the wall, whicharchitecture: Europe 69