Wild fish and other aquatic organisms as feed in aquaculture in Europe 261
short lives and a high level of inter-annual variability that may depend upon extrinsic,
often climate-related factors. As such, they are difficult to manage on a multi-annual
basis when compared with longer-lived stocks for which the state of successive year
classes entering the fishery can be monitored in advance. Fortunately the high levels of
fecundity allow stocks to recover relatively quickly, and thus they are protected to a
certain degree from high levels of exploitation. What is less certain is the consequences
of stock variability on natural predators such as gadoids, marine mammals and seabirds,
as well as the contribution of fishing mortality to these effects. Recent research suggests
that as long as fishing mortality remains below natal mortality, feed fisheries may
not cause problems for the predators on the scale of the stock. However, locally
concentrated harvesting may cause local and temporary depletions, which might affect
subpopulations of species such as sand eel and their natural predators at a local level.
As can be inferred from the above, judging the sustainability of feed-fish stocks is
complex. Although quality and price are the main determinants for fishmeal purchasers
in the aquafeeds industry, the sustainability of feed-fish sources is beginning to be more
important. At present, most buyers depend upon the FIN “Sustainability Dossier” for
information on what stocks are “sustainable” or not, but there is a recognized need for
a comprehensive analytical framework that integrates target stock assessment with the
wider ecosystem linkages. To a degree this exists with the development of ecosystem
models and approaches such as the MSC criteria for “responsible fishing”. Once such
a framework has been created and is accepted as a suitable benchmark by the aquafeed
industry and its detractors, then it will be easier for purchasers to purchase only from
sustainable feed-fish stocks. This process will inevitably have consequences, such as
greater pressure on those stocks deemed as sustainable, as well as possible effects on
market economics. This implies that greater use of vegetable-based substitutes will
be essential, which in turn may require a change in consumer attitudes towards their
inclusion in farmed-fish diets.
There are a number of impacts of compounded feed use, especially in poorly
flushed lakes and semi-enclosed waterbodies with limited flushing, with increased
nutrient levels leading to limnological change as well as benthic change due to increased
sedimentation. However, the high cost of feed, combined with increasingly strict
environmental legislation, has meant that European aquaculture must become generally
very efficient, with minimum wastage and production being limited to the assimilative
capacity of sites. The rapidly expanding use of whole fish, usually small-pelagic
species, for tuna fattening also has its problems, with the possible introduction of
exotic pathogens into local coastal fish populations and increased pressure on the target
stocks themselves.
The various feed fisheries targeted for fishmeal in Europe have little alternative uses.
However, some, such as blue whiting, capelin, anchovy, herring and sprat, can be used
for direct human consumption. The proportion that goes for human consumption
depends largely on economic and cultural factors rather than technical limitations,
and these factors are more difficult to address directly by the industry. Despite the
relatively low cost of products from small pelagic fisheries, these products are not
considered to contribute significantly to ensuring food security in any part of Europe,
due to the ready availability of other nutritional options. In particular, while Eastern
European markets have shown interest in utilizing feed-fish species such as capelin for
human consumption, the volumes used are low and are not likely to grow significantly.
However, the potential for greater utilization of feed-fish fisheries stocks by Eastern
European consumers warrants further investigation, with a focus on the price sensitivity
of these markets and recommendations on how products can be developed that might
better utilize this raw material. However, expectations should be limited –the recent
reductions in capelin catches due to low stock availability may impact investment
opportunities and confidence.