Feist−Feist: Theories of
Personality, Seventh
EditionIII. Humanistic/Existential
Theories- May: Existential
Psychology
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Companies, 2009Chapter 12 May: Existential Psychology 353others. People’s undiscerning reliance on others for these and other needs contributes
to one’s first form of ontological guilt. Because this type of guilt is a result of our
separation from nature, May (1958a) also referred to it as separation guilt,a concept
similar to Fromm’s notion of the human dilemma (see Chapter 7).
The second form of guilt stems from our inability to perceive accurately the
world of others (Mitwelt). We can see other people only through our own eyes and
can never perfectly judge the needs of these other people. Thus, we do violence to
their true identity. Because we cannot unerringly anticipate the needs of others, we
feel inadequate in our relations with them. This then leads to a pervasive condition
of guilt, which is experienced by all of us to some extent. May (1958a) wrote that
“this is not a question of moral failure... it is an inescapable result of the fact that
each of us is a separate individuality and has no choice but to look at the world
through [our] own eyes” (p. 54).
The third form of ontological guilt is associated with our denial of our own po-
tentialities or with our failure to fulfill them. In other words, this guilt is grounded
in our relationship with self (Eigenwelt). Again, this form of guilt is universal, be-
cause none of us can completely fulfill all our potentials. This third type of guilt is
reminiscent of Maslow’s concept of the Jonah complex,or the fear of being or doing
one’s best (see Chapter 10).
Like anxiety, ontological guilt can have either a positive or a negative effect on
personality. We can use this guilt to develop a healthy sense of humility, to improve
our relations with others, and to creatively use our potentialities. However, when we
refuse to accept ontological guilt, it becomes neurotic or morbid. Neurotic guilt, like
neurotic anxiety, leads to nonproductive or neurotic symptoms such as sexual impo-
tence, depression, cruelty to others, or inability to make a choice.
Intentionality
The ability to make a choice implies some underlying structure upon which that
choice is made. The structure that gives meaning to experience and allows people to
make decisions about the future is called intentionality(May, 1969b). Without in-
tentionality, people could neither choose nor act on their choice. Action implies in-
tentionality, just as intentionality implies action; the two are inseparable.
May used the term “intentionality” to bridge the gap between subject and ob-
ject. Intentionality is “the structure of meaning which makes it possible for us, sub-
jects that we are, to see and understand the outside world, objective that it is. In in-
tentionality, the dichotomy between subject and object is partially overcome” (May,
1969b, p. 225).
To illustrate how intentionality partially bridges the gap between subject and
object, May (1969b) used a simple example of a man (the subject) seated at his desk
observing a piece of paper (the object). The man can write on the paper, fold it into
a paper airplane for his grandson, or sketch a picture on it. In all three instances, the
subject (man) and object (paper) are identical, but the man’s actions depend on his
intentions and on the meaning he gives to his experience. That meaning is a function
of both himself (subject) and his environment (object).
Intentionality is sometimes unconscious. For example, when Philip felt a duty
to take care of Nicole despite her unpredictable and “crazy” behavior, he did not see