responsibility to employees and to their corresponding positions. The model also
includes guidelines on how to lead, monitoring progress, agreeing on objectives,
employee discussions, etc. Yet like all models, this was an idealized depiction of
human behavior. Unable to cope with the complex reality of that behavior, this
model is currently considered less relevant (see H€ohn 1980).
The second management concept worth mentioning ismanagement by excep-
tion. Following this approach, the management intervenes only when there are
extenuating circumstances. As such, employees work on their own and are inde-
pendently responsible, until and unless certain limits are exceeded or unpredictable
events require the intervention of the management.
The third major concept,management by objectives, refers to the following: the
managers and the employees work together to agree upon goals for all levels within
the hierarchy. However, no rules are specified for the achievement of objectives.
The person responsible for the respective task decides on the rules and on the
resources to use. This concept, which is based on the division of labor and the
delegation of responsibility, was developed by Drucker and is still valid today,
enjoying considerable success.
Lastly,management by systemsrefers to a leadership method aiming for the
integration of all subsystems within the company, using computer-assisted infor-
mation, planning and control systems to optimize leadership and production
processes.
Aside from these classics, there are numerous other “management by” schools of
thought, such as: management by results, management by motivation, and manage-
ment by participation.
These principles are often the butt of jokes, resulting in fanciful and fictional
leadership styles. Some examples include “management by helicopter,” in which
managers swoop in, whirl up considerable dust, and then fly away again. Or there is
“management by mushrooms”: the employees are kept in the dark, every now and
then someone comes to cover them with a load of fertilizer, and as soon as one
raises their head, it’s promptly cut off.
Managing Quietly
Against the rushing river of leadership trends, and against the scientific dissection
of the leadership phenomenon, the university professor and best-selling author
Henry Mintzberg has provided his noteworthy thesis that “management swims
quietly.” The central tenet of his work is the belief that people are of primary
importance, not shareholder value, and his approach is intended to present an
alternative to what he has accurately described as “management by barking
around.”
Mintzberg is of the opinion that managers benefit more from tried and proven
traits like common sense and social responsibility than from the wealth of new
talents being touted. “Managing quietly” describes a calm, persistent and unspec-
tacular style, that constantly keeps the company on (or steers it back to) the right
2.1 The Craft of Leadership 53