characterizes a ritual more clearly. According to literary sources, a triumphal pro-
cession can be subdivided into three greater sections. The first section moves in front
of the triumphatorand illustrates the victory (e.g. Josephus, Jewish War7.5– 6). Here
loot and arms, but also images of the landscape and conquered cities of the enemy,
were displayed. The battle sequences and the display of the enemy’s generals to give
the audience an impression of the battle must have been an especially spectacular
sight. The sacrificial animals followed, white bulls that were to be sacrificed to Iuppiter
at the Capitol. They marked the end of the first section.
The carriage of the triumphatormade up the second section of the procession,
immediately following the sacrificial animals. The carriage was led by lictoresin red
coats, carrying fascesentwined with laurel. They, together with the officials, marked
the border between first and second sections and announced the victor.
In the third section the soldiers followed in military formation. They were decor-
ated with laurel, unarmed, and displaying their military decorations. They must have
brought an acoustic element to the spectacle, since they sang either mocking or
praising songs about their general.
Various visual stimuli competed for the attention of the spectator. Acoustic signals,
coming from the trumpets leading and accompanying the procession, gave contour
and structure to the event. One example here is the frieze of the so-called temple of
Apollo Sosianus (fig. 18.3 above; Kleiner 1992: 84 – 6, figs. 63 – 4; Fless 2004: 48,
no. 71). Here, the barbarians carried on ferculaand the decorated sacrificial animals
following clearly indicate that this frieze represents a triumphal procession, although
the whole procession is not conserved. The two different groups – vanquished ene-
mies and sacrificial animals – are separated by a trumpet-player. An Antonine relief
panel in the Palazzo dei Conservatori with a depiction of a triumphal procession
also clearly shows that a single pictorial unit of the pompa triumphalismay be accom-
panied by a musician (Kleiner 1992: 288 –301, fig. 261). On the rectangular field,
the triumphal procession is limited to the triumphatoron his quadriga. Contrary to
the first example, neither sacrificial animals nor subjugated enemies are part of the
image. Only a trumpet-player strides in front of the quadriga, announcing the
triumphatorwhile passing the arch with his music. Numerous examples of Roman
historical reliefs could be cited, confirming this specific use of music in depiction of
Roman ritual. The so-called Altar of the Vicomagistri(Kleiner 1992: 147, fig. 122),
however, confirms, while the specific ritual depicted in this monument remains
unclear, that music was not only used during the ritual of triumph. In this monu-
ment as well, a religious procession is depicted, in which different groups are sep-
arated by powerfully playing musicians. Three trumpet-players lead the procession
of sacrificial animals and priests even here, clearly marking the following sacral unit
of the procession.
In images the musician functions as a marker to the beholder delineating a new
or specific part of the procession. In reality they probably had a similar function of
structuring and accentuating the procession. According to written sources, the dis-
play of subjugated enemies resulted in an emotional response of the audience that
included mockery and vituperation. It is probable that a musician would follow
this part of a procession. His playing would silence the shouts from the spectators,
260 Friederike Fless and Katja Moede