only the end of his earthly existence, and the transition to a new existence and his
reception by the gods in heaven.
This religious model was very old and reaches back to the demigod Hercules, who
had spent his whole life on earth fighting monsters and evil powers that endangered
mankind. The removal of his body from the burning pyre and its subsequent trans-
posing to heaven, where he was received by Zeus, the supreme god, was identical
to becoming a god. By the quality of his past achievements Hercules had earned the
right to become a god. The example of Hercules presented a kind of blueprint for gods
to come. In historical times the first Roman to become a god was the dictator
Iulius Caesar. In the version of the poet Ovid (Metamorphoses15.840 – 50) it was
Venus herself, the divine ancestress of the Julian family, who was ordered by
Iuppiter to descend from heaven to take Caesar’s soul and bring it back to heaven.
On its way to heaven Caesar’s soul transformed itself into a fiery comet that con-
veyed the message to the world that Caesar had become a god.
Beginning with Augustus a kind of routine for imperial burials and the aftermath
developed. After Augustus’ burial a senator confirmed under oath that he had seen
Augustus’ soul ascend to heaven. This was a statement that prompted the Roman
senate to declare that Augustus had indeed ascended to heaven and therefore was
entitled to receive the appropriate honors that the Roman state and the Roman
citizens owed a god: a temple, a priest, sacrifices, etc. Augustus now became divus
Augustus(god Augustus). From now on till the fourth century most emperors received
comparable honors after their death. In many cases these divine honors were
extended to cover their dead spouses (Augustus’ wife Livia became diva Augusta).
In some cases even minor members of the imperial family were declared gods (Nero’s
baby daughter Claudia became diva Claudia virgo, the “divine virgin Claudia,” after
her premature death).
The underlying “theology” of becoming a god, or apotheosis, may be sketched
as follows. The decision to remove the emperor’s soul from his mortal remains came
from the supreme god himself, who dispatched his messengers to bring the soul to
him. This act of removal was symbolized for the public by releasing an eagle that
rose into the air. The mythological model was Zeus’ eagle that had carried away the
Trojan prince Ganymede, who had been destined to become Zeus’ cup-bearer.
Most people had no difficulty in accepting the extraordinary position of the emperor.
Only two groups offered fierce resistance to the imperial cult. The Jews were con-
vinced that only one god existed, their national god YHWH, who was at the same
time the real king of the Jewish people. Here religious and political issues were
amalgamated and led to open resistance against the Roman rule. The case of the
Christians was at the same time different and more complicated. The Christians, too,
followed a monotheistic belief, but they were convinced that the rule of the Roman
emperor was legitimized by the decision of their god. Unlike the Jews they did not
object to the emperor himself, but only to the reality of the imperial cult. They deplored
especially the fact that the emperors had not yet recognized the true faith and accepted
the fact that not Jupiter but the Christian god was the real cause of their rule. Therefore,
the Christians offered no fundamental opposition to ruler cult but only to the real-
ities of a still pagan world. When the emperors had become Christians and accepted
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