writer of medical treatises, is supposed to have compared Jesus Christ’s miracles with
those of the sorcerers (goetes) and the “Egyptians,” that is, magicians and prophets
(Origen, Contra Celsum 1.68, 3.50). Spells, love-philters, and healing charms were
part of Roman magic and thus of superstition, as were the driving out of demons,
the raising of the dead, but also the selling of sacred doctrines for a little money.
Although, from 81bc(see Modestinus in Digesta48.8.12; Paulus, Sententiae
5.23.15), thelex Corneliaimposed penalties on those who made evil sacrifices,
performed impious sacrifices, or carried out sacrifices at night in order to bewitch
or to put a spell on someone, sorcery and magic practices seem not to have been
forbidden in general. The Roman authorities took some action against astrologers
and others. Nevertheless, diviners, sorcerers, and magicians could be found in the
Roman forumor Greek agora, in the temples and near the circus, places where pro-
stitutes or beggars could be found as well (Dickie 2001: 233– 6 with references).
The Latin word superstitio(Greek deisidaimonía) is very close to the word religio,
especially in the poems and treatise of authors of late republican times until the first
centuryad (Calderone 1972). Moreover, the word sacrais used quite often in the
context of magic and sorcery, and thus it does seem to be part of the world of reli-
gion and cult, even if not of the official Roman one. However, quite often in Roman
texts and poems there are differences between Roman religion on the one hand and
superstition on the other hand as part of foreign religions, of non-official religious
sentiments and beliefs.
The context of foreign cults, the concern for the preservation of religious prac-
tices and the state’s interest, and the fear that “religious” professionals could make
profit from the poor (as simple-minded) and superstitious people are the reasons for
the many expulsions of astrologers, magicians, etc. from Rome and Italy in repub-
lican and imperial times. For example, the practices the former praetor Vatinius in
50 bcis accused of are called sacra, that is, part of religious dealings, but they are
new and not according to the Roman traditional rites, and he had dared to criticize
parts of Roman religious customs: “after engaging in wicked and unheard of rites
(inaudita et nefaria sacra), and after being in the habit of summoning up spirits of
the Underworld, after honoring the Gods with the entrails of boys, he is so insane
and morally degenerated as to treat the auspices undertaken by the augurs on behalf
of the Roman state with contempt” (Cic. In Vatinium14; trans. Dickie 2001: 137).
Intellectuals like Cicero and Seneca and poets like Horace want us to believe that
superstitiowas an insanity, an illness of the mind (e.g. Hor. Sermones2.3.79f.; Seneca,
Epist.123.16). However, it was widespread and deeply rooted in Roman society.
“Superstition” seemed to be restricted neither to the early Romans nor to women
or poor people. Romans classed as unfortunate the days immediately following the
calends, nones, and idesof each month. Unlucky days were termed dies atri, because
they were marked in the calendar with black charcoal, the lucky ones with white
chalk. There were also days which were thought especially favorable for martial oper-
ations, but the anniversary of a national misfortune, the defeat of the Romans by
the Gauls near the river Allia, July 16, 390bc, was given a prominent place among
the black days of the calendar. But not every general was influenced by such beliefs.
When some officers advised Lucullus to lie still just as he was going to cross the
Living on Religion 339