practices, showing that Roman gods cannot face up to the challenge of empire because
they lack universality. He adopts a universal perspective, viewing the empire in its
entirety, and hence location has a decisive role in his argument. He uses the same
empty structures that described the way religions were organized in the Roman empire:
provincia, civitas, municipium, the populations. The complex relationship between
local religions and imperial religion is at the base of it all, hence his dispute with
Varro’s project of legitimating Roman religious practices outside Rome. Tertullian
argues on the basis of place; this is why he criticizes the Roman categories of
local religion, provincial religion, and imperial religion, and bases his proposal of
a universal religion on this criticism. Yet new categories are not generated. Thus
Tertullian, when attempting to impose Christianity, does no more than make it a
new Roman religion.
FURTHER READINGA general introduction, with references to specific and updated studies, is to be found in Young
et al. (2004), and the origins of Christian literature in particular in Heine (2004: 131– 41)
and Daniélou (1970); references to Latin Christian vocabulary in Cancik (1975: 116ff.). On
the first Latin apologists, see Price (1999) and Fiedrowicz (2000), and especially Rüpke (2006a)
on the literary representations of the first Latin apologists on Roman religion. As for the
problems in writing a scientific biography of Tertullian, see T. Barnes (1971); Carthaginian
social stratification and Tertullian’s social extraction are to be found in Schöllgen (1984),
Carthaginian religious context in Rives (1995), Tertullian as a provincial Roman citizen in
Price (1999: 126). In reference to Ad nationesand Apologeticum, the works of Becker
(1954) and Waltzing (1931) are fundamental; on the dating of both works, see Becker (1954:
33–5); on De spectaculissee M. Turcan (1986) and Sider (1978). Basic studies on Varro are
Cardauns (1978), Lehmann (1986), and Lieberg (1973); regarding the reception of Varro,
Rüpke (2005b) is fundamental. On religion as a cause of the greatness of Rome in
Apologeticum, see Heck (1987: 22–94); on Tertullian’s relationships with the Roman state
in general, Klein (1968) and Zilling (2004); on the relationship with pagans, especially the
senatorial circle, Klein (1968: 49– 80); on the metamorphosis of Roman religion, Cancik
(1995). Rüpke (1997) is important for the methodological conceptualization of provincial
religion and imperial religion.
Latin texts and translations can be found online at the Tertullian Project (www.tertullian.org;
Ad nationestrans. Dr. P. Holmes, both Apologeticumand De spectaculistrans. Rev. S. Thelwall).
Roman Religion in the Vision of Tertullian 471