Spilling Blwd over Water? The Case of Ethiopia 253In almost all instances of interstate and intra-state conflicts in Ethiopia,
there is little evidence of attempts at peaceful resolution. Many disputes lead
to violent conflict. The struggle to control the central state between the vari-
ous contenders in the early period of state formation up to the downfall of
the Dergue was, in most cases, violent. Even the territorial dispute between
Ethiopia and Eritrea became violent, despite protracted diplomacy and other
interventions to prevent war.
One reason for recurring violent conflict in Ethiopia is the absence of dem-
ocratic institutions to negotiate disputes and mediate competition. There
exist various traditional institutions in Ethiopia that have their own custom-
ary methods to prevent and manage conflict. However these are rarely
employed in high-level conflicts involving the central state, which plays an
exaggerated role in every aspect of conflict prevention, management and
peacebuilding. Religious institutions could particularly play a larger role in
preventing and managing conflict given the respect they command.Overview of the Environment
Ethiopia is a landlocked country. The total land area is approximately 1.2 million
square kilometres. The physical landscape is highly variable and diverse, incor-
porating mountain chains, a flat-topped plateau (above 1 500 metres above sea
level), deep canyons, riven, valleys and rolling plains. The central highlands arr
split from the northeast to south-west by the Rifi Valley, which is some 40-60
kilometres wide and dotted by a string of lakes. Altitudes range from 110 mem
below sea level in the Dallol Depression to more than 4 500 metres in the Sien
Mo~ntains?~ Steep lands (defined by areas with a slope exceeding 30%) are esti-
mated to cover about 33% of the highlands and only 21 % of lands have a slope
less than 8%. As a result suitable areas for cultivation are limited.ls
The area of arable land in the country is approximately 13.2 million
hectares, or 12% of the total land area. Cultivated lands cover an estimated
six million hectares, or 45% of all arable lands. Small-scale farmers occupy
96% of the cultivated area, while the remaining436 is cultivated by the state
or by producers' coop era rive^.^^ The total estimated population in 1994 was
63.5 million.30 The population growth rate is estimated to be 3.1 % per
annum.3' Life expectancy at birth is 43 years and the percentage of the pop-
ulation with access to safe water is estimated to be only 26%. averaging only
15% in rural areass2
Population growth is increasing stress on land and natural resources.
Between 70-90% of the population live in the highlands and mainly in rural
areas, where 95% of all food is produced and an estimated hvo-thirds of all
livestock are raised.33 The average land holding is only 1.09 hectares in
size.34 Large disparities in income are common in Ethiopia: the poorest fifth