spi~ing~lwd over Water? The Case of Ethiopia 283
and support of kin.lS1 Many pastoralists themselves are more individualis-
tic in their outlo~k.'~"
This can only serve to undermine the pastoral system which is founded on
reciprocal exchanges, mutual dependence, social networks of support, and
resource sharing. Ongoing social changes in pastoralist communities signal a
radical shift in inter and intra-ethnic group relationships. This involves moves
away from resource sharing based on kinship and descent, toward radically
new types of relationships based on territoriality or locality, external assis-
tance (famine relief), market relations and the 'modem' institutions of the
nation-state.
At the same time, claims to own land have raised the level at which pre-
vention and management is required, from micro or local scales to macro or
national and regional scales. Pastoralists can rely on little legal or institu-
tional support to defend their land and resource rights. Arguably, Ethiopia's
new constitution and environmental policy do offer some protection from, for
example, being evicted from inhabited land. However, the need for bylaws
that provide legal and written backing is vital if the land and resource rights
of pastoralists are to be protected from more powerful interests with access
to information and legal and institutional expertise. This requires urgent
attention at the regional and national levels.
Indeed, a supportive land policy is vital for the continued viability of pas-
toralist production systems in Ethiopia. The absence of a land policy in the
past was a crucial variable underlying conflict in pastoral areas. Decisions
continue to be made at the federal level, which has little understanding or
concern for local issues in peripheral pastoralist zones. As Nicol et a1 con-
tend: "The government plans on the basis of laws and proclamations which
are devised centrally, for instance over land tenure and sovereignty over
resources, at a local level de facto resource sovereignty is exercised by those
with a local monopoly on the use of force."lS3 The lack of a clear land policy
deepens the feeling of insecurity in mral pastoralist areas and prevents long-
term planning as well as effective resolution and prevention of conflict.
As conflicts involving land and natural resources have intensified in many
areas, such as in the Afar region, they become more like blood feuds, as
reprisals are made for lost group members. Today small arms and light
weapons are readily available in the Awash Basin, as they are throughout the
Horn of Africa. The accessibility of small arms and light weapons, including
automatic machine guns and grenades, has dramatically intensified the level
and deadliness of conflicts, effectively revolutionising their nature. The pur-
chase of guns (mainly kalashnikovs) is a primary expenditure of Afar house-
holds.
Competition over the distribution of munitions is common. Not only are
ms and weapons used for self-defence, but they have also become powerful
symbols of heritage. Recent attempts were made by the government to disarm