evaluation anxiety (Zeidner, 1998) are typically part of a more far-reaching
change in mental state.
In this chapter, we outline a cognitive-adaptive perspective on the overlaps
between emotion, cognition and motivation found in differential psychology.
It explains trait and state effects on intellectual functioning as one aspect of
self-regulation, the set of processes and behaviors that support pursuit of per-
sonal goals within a changing external environment (Matthews, Schwean, et
al., 2000). Processes associated with separate domains are linked adaptively,
in supporting common self-regulative goals. Effective adaptation to environ-
mental demands requires some coherent integration of processes within the
three domains in support of common self-regulative goals, including but not
limited to intellectual processes. This functional organization generates con-
sistencies at the level of both states and traits. We will also argue that cogni-
tion is the most fundamental of the trilogy for understanding individual dif-
ferences.
It is convenient to conceptualize adaptation and self-regulation as operat-
ing over longer and shorter time spans. Over the long term, self-regulation
acts to fulfill important personal goals, as expressed in constructs such as life
tasks and personal strivings (e.g., Emmons, 1997). In differential psychology,
long-term self-regulation has been explored most often through studies of ba-
sic needs (e.g., achievement motivation) and, more recently, motives toward
self-determination, such as autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Over the short-
term, self-regulation is directed toward the demands of the immediate situa-
tion, including stressful situations that the person might prefer to avoid. Ex-
posure to challenging situations in part reflects the person’s long-term aims,
but also reflects environmental factors outside of personal control. Changes
in state, such as increased anxiety, have been explained by models of self-
regulation that focus on coping with some immediate discrepancy between
preferred and actual status (e.g., Carver & Scheier, 1988; Matthews, 2001).
Often too, there is an element of conflict between long-term and short-term
regulative activities. For example, students are motivated to take examina-
tions to work towards long-term motives of achievement and security, but, at
the same time, often find exposure to the test environment distressing.
We do not suggest any fundamental difference between long- and short-
term adaptation. For example, both may be controlled by goals at different
levels within a goal hierarchy (Powers, 1973). However, we can separate them
as fuzzy concepts as shown in Table 6.1. Specifically, long-term goals are
more related to the stable needs, values, and beliefs of the self. In addition,
they are less constrained by noncontrollable attributes of the environment,
and they promote self-directed action. Over the longer term, changes in be-
havior reflect acquisition of competencies and skills, whereas short-term be-
havioral variance reflects how effectively those competencies are expressed in
performance. We emphasize this is a rough and ready distinction, in that
- TRAITS, STATES, AND INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING 145