and strategic processing at the early, middle, and later periods of compe-
tence (see Fig. 10.1) were upheld.
Proficiency–Expertise. It is predicted that the force of any one of the
MDL dimensions could catapult students from acclimation into competence.
In contrast, a synergy of forces is presumably required for movement from
competence into expertise (Alexander, 1997, 2003). To achieve expertise and
to maintain that position even in the face of dramatic advancements in a do-
main requires high levels of domain and topic knowledge, deep-strategic
processing, and individual interest. As we see in Bruce, our history scholar,
the knowledge base of experts is both broad and deep. What is particularly
significant is that these experts, like Bruce, are also contributing new knowl-
edge to their domain. This knowledge creation means that experts must be
well versed in prototypic domain problems and methodologies.
Domain experts must also be actively engaged in problem finding. What I
mean by problem finding is that these experts are posing questions and con-
ducting studies that push the domain envelope. Bruce’s research into Colo-
nial America is a case in point. This problem finding translates into a high
level of strategy use among experts, although it is assumed that those strate-
gies are almost exclusively of a deep-processing nature (see Fig. 10.1). This
was precisely the strategy use pattern my colleagues and I uncovered in our
study in special education. Individuals in the Proficiency cluster, composed
of faculty and several advanced doctoral students, were markedly different in
their strategic processing than all other clusters, and their documented strate-
gies were exclusively deep processing in form. These individuals were also sig-
nificantly more knowledgeable than members of the Acclimation and Early
Competence groups, as predicted.
Moreover, the individual interest of experts is expected to be higher than
the interest of those in the other stages of expertise development. It is also hy-
pothesized that the strength of situational interest evidenced in earlier stages
would level off in the proficiency stage. These predictions about interest have
been upheld in prior MDL studies. For example, Alexander et al. (2002) dem-
onstrated that those in the Proficiency cluster reported higher engagement in
professionally related activities than in all other clusters, including the Mid-
Competence group. Interestingly, these experts’ reported activities in more
personal forms of individual interest were statistically lower than those re-
ported by the Mid-Competence cluster. The predicted relations between in-
terest and subject-matter knowledge for clusters have also been confirmed by
this and other cluster analytic studies (e.g., Alexander et al., 1995; Murphy &
Alexander, 2002). We would expect Bruce to reflect similar engagement in his
chosen profession. Unlike Evie, whose avenues tended toward personal and
professional activities, Bruce’s involvement would predictably illustrate a
292 ALEXANDER