longer time intervals without outside support because as one goal is accom-
plished, the learner shifts to the next goal in a hierarchy, such as the next item
in a priority list of homework assignments. Proactive learners engage in stra-
tegic planning because strategies represent an effective means to learn (Press-
ley et al., 1987), such as using a graphic organizer to write an essay. In con-
trast, reactive self-regulators seldom engage in systematic task analyses
during forethought.
Proactive learners’ willingness to engage in optimal forms of goal setting
and strategy use depends on high levels of self-motivation. As we noted ear-
lier, goal setting and strategic planning are linked in both theory and research
to such self-motivational beliefs as self-efficacy, outcome expectations, in-
trinsic interest or task valuing, and goal orientation. Students who focus
proactively on learning processes are more self-efficacious (Schunk & Swartz,
1993a, 1993b), and these positive self-beliefs let them set higher learning goals
340 ZIMMERMAN AND SCHUNK
FIG. 12.3. Phases and subprocesses of self-regulation. From “Motivating self-
regulated problem solvers” by B. J. Zimmerman & M. Campillo, 2003, in J. E.
Davidson & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.),The nature of problem solving(p. 239). New
York: Cambridge University Press. Copyright by Cambridge University Press.