contained rich details of thoughts regarding intelligence, ability, skill, knowl-
edge, and mental processes, or the plain side of learning. Yet these data also
revealed purposes, personal significance, and emotions (both positive and
negative), or the colored side of learning. It was clear that the two sides were
expressed not as separate but as intertwined processes such that stressing
only one side would lead to misunderstanding and distortion of people’s be-
liefs (Fischer, Shaver, & Carnochan, 1990). We review two studies that fo-
cused on adult or developed beliefs. In addition, we briefly refer to two fur-
ther studies on children’s developing beliefs. In doing so, we attempt to retain
the integrative nature of each culture’s beliefs about learning.
In her first study, Li (2003b) asked U.S. (middle class Euro-American—
the term “U.S.” is used for convenience hereafter) and Chinese college stu-
dents to free-associate the English term learn–learning and its Chinese equiv-
alent “xuexi” after ascertaining their high similarity in meaning through
word frequencies and a cross-translation procedure (see Li, 2003b for more
detail). She initially collected nearly 500 terms from each culture. By using a
rating procedure for relevance to learning, she obtained 205 English and 225
Chinese terms as the core list for each culture, respectively. These core items
were then given to college students in their own culture to sort, based on simi-
larity in meaning, into groups. With cluster analyses, the sorted groups fi-
nally resulted in each culture’s conceptual map of learning as shown in Figs.
14.1 and 14.2.
Whereas these maps contain much detailed information, it suffices to
highlight the most relevant features to this chapter. The U.S. map (Fig. 14.1)
focuses on learning processes (with the majority of terms) on one side and
learning content (with fewer terms) on another. Within the learning proc-
esses, a great many more terms fall within learner characteristics than within
social context. The two most significant dimensions are under learner charac-
teristics: (a) specific learning processes elaborating on active learning, think-
ing, inquiry, and communicating; and (b) individual characteristics stressing
cognitive skills, motivation, open mind, and intelligence.
The Chinese map (Fig. 14.2) focuses on desirable versus undesirable ap-
proaches to learning with the majority of terms falling on the desirable side,
which contains two further distinctions: seeking knowledge (also process-
oriented but with heightened personal agency) and achievement categories
and standards. Under seeking knowledge, the most significant groups are (a)
heart and mind for wanting to learn, which includes lifelong pursuit, a set of
learning virtues (diligence, endurance of hardship, steadfast perseverance,
and concentration), humility, and desire; (b) purpose of learning containing
three essential ideas—learning as an end in itself, status, and contributions to
society. Under achievement there is one significant dimension: kinds of
achievement emphasizing breadth and depth of knowledge, abilities, unity of
knowing and morality, and originality.
394 LI AND FISCHER