many of these were originally designed to account for the effects of depressed
mood on cognitive processing (e.g., Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988). Other social
psychologists have focused more exclusively on the role of positive affect and
cognitive functioning. For instance, Isen (Isen, 1984; Isen, Daubman, &
Nowicki, 1987) conducted a number of studies examining how positive mood
influences problem solving and cognitive processing. More recently, Fred-
rickson (1998, 2001) proposed the broaden-and-build model of positive emo-
tions in which positive emotions are associated with a broadening of both
thought and action. Accordingly, we briefly describe the broaden-and-build
model of positive emotions and consider links among this recent conception
of positive emotions, Isen’s work on positive affect, and current models link-
ing affect more generally to cognitive processing.
Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) broaden-and-build model was designed to ac-
count for positive emotions. In particular, she argued that positive emotions
are associated with the broadening of possible thought-action repertoires.
That is, positive emotions should be associated with the pursuit of novel, cre-
ative, unscripted thoughts and actions. For instance, joy is associated with
the urge to play and explore. Play and exploration are associated with a
broad variety of action tendencies and therefore are associated with the
broadening of possible thought-action tendencies. Furthermore, Fredrickson
argued that play helps to build cognitive, physical, and social skills. Thus,
joy, as well as other positive emotions such as interest, love, and content-
ment, broadens one’s thought-action repertoire and builds cognitive, physi-
cal, and social resources. In line with Fredrickson’s predictions, Pekrun et al.
(2002) found that positive academic emotions such as enjoyment and hope
are associated with more effort, deeper cognitive engagement, more self-
regulated learning, and less irrelevant thinking in academic settings.
Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) model in which positive emotions serve to
broaden one’s thoughts is also consistent with Bless’ (2000) notion that a per-
son in a positive mood relies on general knowledge structures. The broaden-
and-build model also parallels Fiedler’s (2000) suggestion that positive mood
and assimilation processes can lead to active generation of new ideas. Finally,
the broaden-and-build model of positive emotions ties in nicely with Isen’s
(e.g., Isen et al., 1987) work linking positive moods to more creative problem
solving. That is, if a person experiences a positive emotion such as joy, which
is linked to exploration and play, it seems probable that a person experienc-
ing joy would also be more likely to generate novel solutions to various situa-
tions, thus enhancing creative problem solving. Recently, Isen and her col-
leagues (Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999) suggested that positive affect is
associated with increased dopamine levels and that the differences in cogni-
tive processing associated with positive affect may be a result of the increased
dopamine. Thus, there may also be some biological basis for the links be-
- AFFECT AND COGNITIVE PROCESSING 65