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Bird Ecology and Conservation A Handbook of Techniques

(Tina Sui) #1



    1. Bird diversity survey methods List of Contributors xvii



    • 1.1 Introduction Colin J. Bibby

    • 1.2 Designing the fieldwork

    • 1.3 Finding the birds

    • 1.4 Standardizing the effort by time and space

    • 1.5 Standardizing the effort by McKinnon’s list method

    • 1.6 Atlas studies

    • 1.7 Estimating species richness

    • 1.8 Conclusion





    1. Bird census and survey techniques



    • 2.1 Introduction Richard D. Gregory, David W. Gibbons, and Paul F. Donald

      • 2.1.1 What are bird surveys and why do we need them?

      • 2.1.2 What is monitoring and why do we need it?

      • 2.1.3 Useful sources of information

      • 2.1.4 Begin at the beginning

      • 2.1.5 Population size or index?

      • 2.1.6 Survey boundaries

      • 2.1.7 Census or sample?

      • 2.1.8 Sampling strategy

      • 2.1.9 Sampling unit

      • 2.1.10Field methods

      • 2.1.11 Accuracy, precision, and bias



    • 2.2 Sampling strategies

      • 2.2.1 How many sampling units?

      • 2.2.2 Which sampling units to count?

      • 2.2.3 Using stratification



    • 2.3 Field methods

      • 2.3.1 Mapping

      • 2.3.2 Transects

      • 2.3.3 Line transects

      • 2.3.4 Point transects

      • 2.3.5 Rules for recording birds in the field

      • 2.3.6 Choosing between line and point transects

      • 2.3.7 Detection probabilities

      • 2.3.8 Colonial birds

      • 2.3.9 Counting roosts and flocks

      • 2.3.10 Counting leks

      • 2.3.11 Counting migrants

      • 2.3.12 Capture techniques

      • 2.3.13 Tape playback

      • 2.3.14 Vocal individuality



    • 2.4 Conclusions





    1. Breeding biology



    • 3.1 Introduction Rhys E. Green

    • 3.2 Choosing study areas

    • 3.3 Measuring the success of individual breeding attempts

      • 3.3.1Finding and selecting nests

      • 3.3.2Recording the stage of a breeding attempt when it is located

      • 3.3.3Precautions to take so that nests can be relocated for checking

      • 3.3.4Nest checking

      • 3.3.5Determination of chick survival for species with precocial young

      • 3.3.6Estimation of nest success from nest check data



    • 3.4 Determination of the proximate causes of breeding failure

      • 3.4.1Signs left at the nest

      • 3.4.2Wax or plasticine eggs in the nests of wild birds

      • 3.4.3Cameras

      • 3.4.4Temperature loggers



    • 3.5 Using artificial nests to measure nest success and causes of failure

    • 3.6 Measuring annual productivity

      • 3.6.1Why measure annual productivity?

      • 3.6.2Productivity from counts after the breeding season

      • 3.6.3Productivity from captures after the breeding season

      • 3.6.4Intensive studies of breeding

        • the breeding season 3.6.5Indices of productivity from surveys during



      • 3.6.6Use of simulation models



    • 3.7 Timing of breeding

    • 3.8 Measurements of eggs and chicks

    • 3.9 Proximate and ultimate causes of breeding failure

      • proximate causes of breeding failure 3.10 Value of experiments to disentangle ultimate and







    1. Birds in the hand



    • 4.1 Introduction Andrew Gosler

    • 4.2 Welfare, ethical, and legislative issues

    • 4.3 Catching the birds

      • 4.3.1The breeding season

      • 4.3.2Cage traps

      • 4.3.3Spring traps

      • 4.3.4A couple of nestbox traps

      • 4.3.5Noose-carpet traps

      • 4.3.6Mist-nets

      • 4.3.7Clap-nets and whoosh-nets

      • 4.3.8Canon-nets

      • 4.3.9Capture by hand



    • 4.4 Individual marking

    • 4.5 Notes on bird handling

    • 4.6 The bird at close quarters

      • 4.6.1Age and molt

      • 4.6.2Sex

      • 4.6.3Weight

      • 4.6.4Color, for example, UV reflectance



    • 4.7 Size

      • 4.7.1 Body size

      • 4.7.2 Wing

      • 4.7.3 Tail

      • 4.7.4 Tarsus

      • 4.7.5 Tarsus-and-toe

      • 4.7.6 Bill

      • 4.7.7 Total-head

      • 4.7.8 Claw, eye-ring, and other measures



    • 4.8 Condition

      • 4.8.1Asymmetry

      • 4.8.2Relative mass

      • 4.8.3Fat reserves

      • 4.8.4Muscle protein

      • 4.8.5Physiological measures

      • 4.8.6Molt and plumage

      • 4.8.7Parasites



    • 4.9 Biopsy





    1. Estimating survival and movement



    • 5.1 Introduction James D. Nichols, William L. Kendall, and Michael C. Runge

    • 5.2 Tag type and subsequent encounters

    • 5.3 Survival rates

      • 5.3.1Radio-telemetry

      • 5.3.2Capture–recapture/resighting

      • 5.3.3Band recovery



    • 5.4 Movement

      • 5.4.1Radio-telemetry

      • 5.4.2Capture–recapture/resighting

      • 5.4.3Band recovery



    • 5.5 Summary and general recommendations





    1. Radio-tagging



    • 6.1 Introduction Robert Kenward

    • 6.2 Choice of techniques

      • 6.2.1Constraints on radio tagging

      • 6.2.2Applications and advantages

      • 6.2.3Considerations for tag attachment



    • 6.3 Forward planning

      • 6.3.1Equipment

      • 6.3.2Mobile tracking

      • 6.3.3Software



    • 6.4 Approaches

      • 6.4.1Pilot studies

      • 6.4.2Recording locations

      • 6.4.3Using location data

      • 6.4.4Demography



    • 6.5 The future





    1. Migration



    • 7.1 Introduction Susanne Åkesson and Anders Hedenström

    • 7.2 Migration systems

      • 7.2.1Mark-recapture

      • 7.2.2Morphology

      • 7.2.3Genetic markers

      • 7.2.4Stable isotopes



    • 7.3 Migration behavior and strategies

      • 7.3.1Counting and observing migrants

        • 7.3.2Tracking migrants Contents|xi

        • 7.3.3Remote sensing: infrared device

        • 7.3.4Remote sensing: radar

        • 7.3.5Stopover



      • 7.4 Physiology of migration

        • 7.4.1Body composition

        • 7.4.2Energetics

        • 7.4.3Endocrinology



      • 7.5 Flight in wind tunnels

      • 7.6 Orientation and navigation

        • 7.6.1Emlen funnels

        • 7.6.2Manipulating sensory input

        • 7.6.3Displacement experiments

        • 7.6.4Selection experiments

        • 7.6.5Circular statistics



      • 7.7 Modeling migration

      • 7.8 Concluding remarks





      1. Information from dead and dying birds



      • 8.1 Introduction John E. Cooper

        • 8.1.1Terminology—definitions and explanation

        • 8.1.2Methodology—an overview of techniques



      • 8.2 The postmortemexamination

      • 8.3 Health and safety

      • 8.4Postmortemexaminations (necropsies)

      • 8.5 Laboratory investigations

      • 8.6 Interpretation of findings

      • 8.7 Legal aspects

      • 8.8 Conclusions







    1. Techniques in physiology and genetics

      • 9.1 Introduction Alistair Dawson

      • 9.2 Sampling techniques

        • 9.2.1Ethical considerations

        • 9.2.2Legal considerations—catching wild birds for research

        • 9.2.3Legal considerations—scientific experiments on birds

        • 9.2.4Housing and husbandry

        • 9.2.5Blood sampling

        • 9.2.6Administration of substances

        • 9.2.7Anesthesia



      • 9.2.8Implants

      • 9.2.9Laparotomy





    • 9.3 Ecotoxicology

    • 9.4 Endocrinology

    • 9.5 Energetics

    • 9.6 Molecular genetics





    1. Diet and foraging behavior



    • 10.1 Introduction William J. Sutherland

    • 10.2 Diet composition

      • 10.2.1 Direct observation

      • 10.2.2 Nest observations

      • 10.2.3 Remains and signs

      • 10.2.4 Dropping analysis

      • 10.2.5 Pellet analysis

      • 10.2.6 Stomach analysis

      • 10.2.7 Direct observations of crop

      • 10.2.8 Regurgitates

      • 10.2.9 Cafeteria experiments

      • 10.2.10Morphology

      • 10.2.11Neck ligatures

      • 10.2.12Emetics and flushing

      • 10.2.13Isotope differences between habitats



    • 10.3 Determining prey size

      • 10.3.1 Direct observation of prey size

      • 10.3.2 Determining size from prey remains

      • 10.3.3 Determining prey size from regurgitates

      • 10.3.4 Measuring fragments in pellets, droppings, or stomach



    • 10.4 Prey quality

      • 10.4.1 Energy content

      • 10.4.2 Prey digestibility



    • 10.5 Foraging behavior

      • 10.5.1 Time budgets

      • 10.5.2 Time spent feeding per day

      • 10.5.3 Night observations

      • 10.5.4 Handling time

      • 10.5.5 Intake rate and the functional response

      • 10.5.6 Interference

      • 10.5.7 Depletion

      • 10.5.8 Prey availability

      • 10.5.9 Exclosures

      • 10.5.10Mate provisioning and brood provisioning rates







    1. Habitat assessment



    • 11.1 Introduction William J. Sutherland and Rhys E. Green

      • 11.1.1Habitat associations

      • 11.1.2Documenting changes over time



    • 11.2 Protocols

    • 11.3 Physical environment

      • 11.3.1Temperature and thermoregulation

      • 11.3.2Rainfall and soil wetness

      • 11.3.3Slope, aspect, elevation, and topography

      • 11.3.4Type, chemistry, and penetrability of soils

      • 11.3.5Water chemistry



    • 11.4 Vegetation

      • 11.4.1Mapping of broad habitat types

      • 11.4.2Species composition of vegetation

      • 11.4.3Vegetation architecture



    • 11.5 Quantifying habitat selection

      • areas of the habitats available tracked birds in each of several habitats with the relative

      • of those units tracked birds in spatial units to the habitat composition

      • known to be unused at places that are representative of the study area or



    • 11.6 Food abundance and availability

    • 11.7 Predator abundance

    • 11.8 Disturbance





    1. Conservation management of endangered birds



    • 12.1 Introduction Carl G. Jones

    • 12.2 Process in the restoration of endangered species

      • 12.2.1Step one: know your species

        • and test remedial action 12.2.2Step two: diagnose causes of population decline



      • 12.2.3Stage three: intensive management

      • 12.2.4Stage four: population management

      • 12.2.5Stage five: monitoring



    • 12.3 Broad population management approaches

      • 12.3.1Supplemental feeding

      • 12.3.2Enhancing nest-sites and the provision of nest-boxes

      • 12.3.3Disease control

      • 12.3.4Predator control



    • 12.4 Intensive management of focal pairs

      • 12.4.1Close guarding and monitoring of nests

      • 12.4.2Clutch and brood manipulations



    • 12.5 Reintroduction and translocations

      • 12.5.1Reintroduction

      • 12.5.2Translocations



    • 12.6 Supportive management for bird restoration projects

      • 12.6.1Role of captive facilities

      • 12.6.2Model or surrogate species

      • 12.6.3Artificial incubation and hand-rearing



    • 12.7 Integrated management

    • 12.8 Discussion





    1. Exploitation



    • 13.1 Introduction: assessment of exploitation Michael C. Runge, William L. Kendall, and James D. Nichols

      • 13.1.1Taking a conservative approach

      • 13.1.2Minimum estimates of population size

      • 13.1.3Estimates of harvest levels

      • 13.1.4Population models and associated parameters

      • 13.1.5The use of trends



    • 13.2 Theoretical basis for sustainable exploitation

      • 13.2.1Logistic growth model with perfect information

        • biological removal 13.2.2Incorporating uncertainty: potential



      • 13.2.3A note about other methods of assessing sustainability



    • 13.3 Harvest control and management objectives

      • 13.3.1Harvest management strategies

      • 13.3.2Harvest management objectives



    • 13.4 Assessing harvest levels

      • 13.4.1Total harvest (H) versus harvest rate (h)

      • 13.4.2Harvest estimation when harvest is legal and observable

      • 13.4.3Harvest estimation when harvest is illegal

      • 13.4.4Measuring harvest rate



    • 13.5 Assessing population size

      • 13.5.1Overview

      • 13.5.2Coping with uncertainty



    • 13.6 Assessing population dynamics

      • 13.6.1Maximum growth rate (rmax)

      • 13.6.2Other aspects of density dependence

      • 13.6.3Other driving forces

      • 13.6.4Model structure



    • 13.7 Addressing uncertainty

      • 13.7.1 Motivation

      • 13.7.2 Management experiments

      • 13.7.3 Adaptive management







    1. Habitat management



    • 14.1 Introduction Malcolm Ausden

    • 14.2 Deciding what to do

    • 14.3 Monitoring

    • 14.4 General principles of managing habitats for birds

      • 14.4.1Factors influencing habitat use by birds

      • 14.4.2Taking account of the requirements of non-bird species

      • 14.4.3Controlling unwanted plants

      • 14.4.4Taking account of predicted climate change



    • 14.5 Managing grasslands

      • 14.5.1Introduction

      • 14.5.2Effects of cutting and burning on sward condition

      • 14.5.3Effects of grazing on sward condition

      • 14.5.4Minimizing nest and chick loss during management

      • 14.5.5Using fertilizer

      • 14.5.6Hydrology of wet grasslands



    • 14.6 Managing dwarf shrub habitats

    • 14.7 Managing forests and scrub

      • 14.7.1 Introduction

      • 14.7.2 Grazing and browsing

      • 14.7.3 Burning

      • 14.7.4 Planting and harvesting regimes

      • 14.7.5 Thinning and creating gaps

      • 14.7.6 Increasing the quantity of dead wood



    • 14.8 Managing deep water

    • 14.9 Managing wetlands

      • ruderal vegetation, and swamp 14.9.1Manipulating the proportions of open water,

      • 14.9.2Increasing food abundance for birds in shallow freshwater

        • and saline water 14.9.3Increasing food abundance for birds in shallow brackish



      • 14.9.4Increasing accessibility of food for birds in shallow water

      • 14.9.5Providing islands and rafts

      • 14.9.6Managing reedbeds

      • 14.9.7Scrub

      • 14.9.8Wet woodlands



    • 14.10 Managing intertidal habitats

    • 14.11 Managing arable land and hedgerows

    • 14.12 Conclusions

    • Index



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