Tropical Forest Community Ecology

476 Francis E. Putz and Pieter A. Zuidema

conservation recommendations are grounded
primarily in ecological theory (e.g., Pickettet al.
1997, McCool and Stankey 2004, Groomet al.
2006). For example, if Brazilians and Indone-
sians and Cameroonians are destroying tropical
forests by building roads and opening farms, then
island biogeography theory calls for the establish-
ment of large inviolate preserves in which such
activities are prohibited. Similarly, widespread for-
est fragmentation provokes calls for connecting
protected areas with corridors of natural forest
to allow gene flow and thereby avoid the extinc-
tions that will otherwise occur. And if human-
induced disturbances such as grazing, logging,
and burning practices exceed the natural range
of disturbances to which forest organisms are
presumedtobeadapted,thenherdreductions,log-
ging bans, and fire-use restrictions are obviously
justified. As we hope to show below, all of these
well-intentioned and ecological theory-based rec-
ommendations can be inappropriate at certain

scales and in many social, economic, and political

contexts (Figure 28.1).

Theisland-biogeographicalmodelof MacArthur

and Wilson (1967) has influenced conservation

science perhaps more than any other concept in

ecology. Concerns about species losses in forest

fragments, for example, are explained by this the-

ory. Unfortunately, while the theory may be used

to make robust predictions for oceanic islands,

it does not work as well for forest fragments

embedded in landscapes with edge-buffering plan-

tations or secondary forests across which many

taxa readily move (e.g., Malcolm 1994, Gas-

conet al. 1999, Barlowet al. 2007). Another

problem is that most of the numerous studies

documenting changes in fragment microclimate,

ecosystem functions, and biodiversity were con-

ducted in small fragments of 1–100 ha, and much

less often in fragments of more than 1000 ha

(Zuidemaet al. 1996, Laurance and Bierregaard

1997). Furthermore, fragmentation effects on

Ecological concepts,

theories, hypotheses

Conservation goals

Conservation options for specific areas

Implemented conservation activities

Crucial steps before implementing

conservation activities

Translation

Selection of means

"Be flexible"

"Consider contexts"

"Extrapolate carefully"

"Consider limitations"

"Negotiate locally"

"Be patient"

Participation, innovation, andadaptation

Figure 28.1 From ecological concepts and conservation goals to implemented conservation activities. Quoted
remarks pertain to the steps in the process and are the main messages of this chapter.