population, particularly the especially hostile Samarians. Not surprisingly,
the Jewish population did not exceed 20,000 people. Owing to a lack of
funds, manpower, and interest, the Temple project ground to a halt.
The accession of Darius I to the Persian throne in 522 altered the situation.
Under Darius, stability and growth in Israel continued under the leadership
of the priests. The Jewish population increased to 50,000. The Temple pro-
ject recommenced in earnest around 520. By 515, the Temple was rebuilt,
though a far cry from Solomon’s temple.
The ensuing half-century, though, was a time of decline and hardship
caused primarily by heavy taxation, and strained relations with the local
populace. Religious laxity became a problem as well. The priests offered sick
and diseased animals as sacrifices in the temple. The observance of the laws
of Sabbath-day rest was largely ignored. Many Jews neglected to pay the req-
uisite tithes to the Temple. In addition, many of the Jewish poor were
reduced to servitude, and marriage between Jews and non-Jews became more
frequent.
These difficulties prompted two reform initiatives: a short-lived, ad hoc,
and largely ineffective effort by Nehemiah, a Jewish courtier and the cup-
bearer to the king of Persia, aimed at administrative organization; and a more
effective effort by Ezra the Scribe, regarded by Jewish tradition as nearly on a
par with Moses. Ezra’s mandate was exclusively religious. He came to Judah
on behalf of the Persian crown, armed with the laws of the Torah and the
power to enforce them. With this power in hand, Ezra enacted a series of reli-
gious reforms through a public ceremony in which he invited Jews to reaffirm
their commitment to the covenant. These reforms included a taboo on mar-
riages between Jews and gentiles, and a ban on carrying out work on the
Sabbath. It became obligatory to observe the Sabbatical year (a year of rest for
the land every seventh year), to pay taxes for the upkeep of the Temple, and to
bring wood and the first fruits to the Temple.
In addition, Ezra introduced a new way of understanding and interpret-
ing the Torah. Previously, Jews had understood the Torah literally. Ezra
pioneered an interpretive technique that came to be known as Midrash:
deriving laws from the words of Scripture. Of particular importance was
Ezra’s redefinition of who was to be considered a Jew. Only those who could
show the proper pedigree could be considered Jews. This new attitude
toward foreigners was applied to two cases. Regarding the Samarians, even
those who wanted to join were excluded, since they lacked the proper lin-
eage. Of greater long-term impact was Ezra’s injunction against
intermarriage. He persuaded Jewish men to banish their foreign wives,
resulting in the expulsion of 113 foreign wives.
In light of the new emphasis on law, Ezra instituted weekly public
reading of the Law of Moses, a practice that continues to this day. He
also oversaw the final editing of the Hebrew Bible (with the exception
24 The world of the Hebrew Bible