228 ISLAM AT WAR
the status ofdhimmiand burdened withjizyaandkharajtaxes that often
were a crushing burden that forced non-Muslim peasantry to live at a
subsistence level. The purpose of these taxes was twofold. First, economic
pressure presumably would eventually pressure the less spiritually strong
to convert to Islam. Second, taxation would so oppress those who stood
defiant in their resolution and commitment to their religion that they could
never become a threat to Islam’s domination in the land. These non-
Muslim communities within the Muslim world did, however, obtain a
certain amount of autonomy in that they governed their own affairs within
their own communities. However, if at any time they had dealings with a
Muslim, the Islamic courts ruled and second-class citizenship proved a
crushing burden that left the non-Muslim totally at the mercy of the Mus-
lims with which he conducted business. If they chose to rob him it was
perfectly legal, and not only would the Islamic courts support the robber,
but his religion reaffirmed the behavior that we would see as immoral,
because it was done to a non-Muslim.
It should be noted that the degree of repression and the quality of life
of thedhimmisdid vary considerably depending on the period and the
Islamic state in question. Certain Islamic rulers were noted for their en-
lightened rule and tolerance of other religions. However, many others
closely followed the Koranic teachings and imposed the full rigor of Is-
lamic law.
Because of this, Jewish communities within the Islamic cultures would
frequently live precariously in times of famine, civil strive, or other ca-
tastrophes. The Jews were a small, defenseless community of infidels and
humble tribute bearers who could be abused without response, particularly
in light of the Koranic verses relating to them.
With Koranic support, anti-Semitism was not unknown in the Islamic
world. Even in the best of times, Jewishdhimmisin all walks of life and
at every level of society could suddenly and rudely be reminded of their
true status.
Another form of discrimination against thedhimmiswas forced mass
conversion. Under the Almohad caliphs Al Mumin (d. 1165), Abu Yaqub
(d. 1184) and Al Mansur (d. 1199), there were forced conversions. If one
assumes only one conversion per reign, this identifies three forced con-
versions. In Yemen the Jews, who were already part of the Islamic world
and declared asdhimmis,were forced to choose between death and con-
version to Islam in 1165 and again in 1678. Apparently some had either
escaped the first forced conversion or had reverted to their old ways. The
same happened in Aden in 1198. The Jews of Tabriz were obliged to
convert in 1291 and 1318, and those of Baghdad in 1333 and 1344.