behalf of her devotees. Her power over
all things and Shiva’s helplessness with-
out this power is symbolized by the
images of Kali standing over the pros-
trate Shiva, clearly in a dominant posi-
tion. In this tradition, the tantric expert
is seen as a heroic figure who gains
power from the goddess.
The tantras also stress the reconcilia-
tion of opposites as a way to destroy all
conceptual dualism and affirm the ulti-
mate unity of the entire universe. To
carry this out, tantric rituals may
include practices involving substances
normally forbidden, such as the so-
called Panchamakara, or “Five
Forbidden Things,” as a way to affirm
the provisional nature of all judgments
of purity and impurity (ashaucha).
Again, Kali is the quintessential tantric
deity, since her iconography and
mythology involve things normally con-
sidered impure: drinking blood and
receiving animal sacrifices, living in the
cremation ground, and clothing herself
with severed limbs.
The other dominant image for the
worship of Kali is as a mother. This
image is preeminent in the Bengal
region, and has become widely estab-
lished there during the past few hun-
dred years. This image of Kali is rooted
in Indian images of motherhood, which
are greatly idealized in terms of a moth-
er’s devotion to her children. The central
belief is that if a devotee approaches Kali
as a submissive child, ready to take
whatever blows she gives, she will ulti-
mately turn her awesome forces toward
protecting her devotee. Kali’s most
famous devotees are the nineteenth-
century Bengali figures Ramprasadand
Ramakrishna; the former is famous for
a poem in which he states that there are
bad children but never a bad mother.
Religious adepts such as Ramprasad
and Ramakrishna have been able to
maintain this tension between Kali’s
horrific persona and her image as a
mother, but in popular devotion this
tension has been largely lost. Modern
images of Kali tend to sweeten or ignore
her horrific aspects, often portraying her
as young, beautiful, and almost benevo-
lent. For more information on Kali, see
David R. Kinsley, The Sword and the
Flute,1975; and Hindu Goddesses, 1986.Kalibangan
Archeological site in the western state of
Rajasthan, a short distance from the
border with Pakistan. Kalibangan is one
of the cities of the Indus Valley
Civilizationand is part of cluster of
cities in what many archaeologists
believe was the Saraswati Rivervalley,
although at present the river disappears
into the desert. The site at Kalibangan is
nearly as large as the cities at Harappa,
Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal. The city
plan is virtually identical to the others,
thus revealing the scope of this mysteri-
ous ancient culture.Kalidasa
(5th c. ?) Generally considered the great-
est Sanskritwriter, noted both for his
command of the language and his ability
to evoke poetic emotion (rasa) in his
listeners. There is little definite informa-
tion about Kalidasa’s life; even the dates
of his birth and death have been widely
debated. According to legend, Kalidasa
was an illiterate village boy. As a joke he
was presented as a suitor for a learned
princess who had vowed that she would
only marry a man who could defeat her
in a silent debate—that is, a debate
using gestures instead of words.
Kalidasa “defeated” the princess
through coincidence and mutual mis-
understanding and became her hus-
band. When the princess discovered the
depths of Kalidasa’s ignorance, she
threw him out of the house, ordering
him not to return until he had become
educated. In desperation he went to a
temple of the goddess Kaliand was
about to offer himself as a human sacri-
fice, when Kali appeared to him and
gave him absolute mastery of Sanskrit.
Upon his return, his wife is reported
to have asked him, “Have you gained
proficiency in [Sanskrit] speech?” (“AstiKalidasa