and his aloofness from the standards
and concerns of everyday life. Use of a
skull-bowl has also been adopted by
some Shaiva ascetics, both past and
present, in imitation of this myth. The
skulls are usually taken from cremation
grounds; the upper skull is separated to
be made into a bowl.
Kapalamochana
(“releasing the skull”) Bathing (snana)
tank and sacred site (tirtha) in the
northern section of the city of Benares.
According to Hindu mythology, when
the wrathful deity Bhairavacuts off the
fifth head of the god Brahma, insulting
the god Shiva, the skull sticks to
Bhairava’s hand as a visible sign of his
crime. Bhairava visits all the holy places
of the earth trying to get rid of the skull,
but to no avail. When he arrives in
Kapalamochana, the skull spontaneously
drops from his hand, liberating
him from his crime. This act indicates
that Kapalamochana is the holiest
place on earth.
Kapalika
Extinct monastic sect of Shaivite
ascetics, or devotees (bhakta) of the god
Shiva. Although none of the Kapalikas’
own written records have survived,
there are numerous descriptions of
them by other asceticgroups and by
dramatists of their time such as Bana
(7th c.) and Bhavabhuti (8th c.). The
sources describe the Kapalikas as wor-
shiping the god Shiva in his wrathful
form as Bhairava and as emulating
Bhairava’s characteristics: wearing their
hair long and matted, smearing their
bodies with ash (preferably from the
cremation ground), and carrying a club
and a skull-bowl (kapala). The Kapalikas
are cited as indulging in forbidden
behavior—drinking wine, eating meat,
using cannabis and other drugs,
performing human sacrifice, and
enjoying orgiastic sexuality. Needless to
say, most of the available sources do not
approve of them.
David Lorenzen argues that despite
the disapproval of their contemporaries,
all the Kapalika practices must be seen
in the context of tantra. Tantra is a
secret, ritually-based religious practice
that its initiates believe is far more pow-
erful and effective than ordinary reli-
gious worship. One of its most essential
themes is the ultimate unity of every-
thing that exists. From a tantric perspec-
tive, to affirm that the entire universe is
one principle—often, conceived as the
activity of a particular deity—means
that the adept must reject all concepts
based on dualistic thinking. One way to
do this is to partake of the “Five
Forbidden Things” (panchamakara),
consciously breaking societal norms
forbidding illicit sexuality and
consumption of intoxicantsand non-
vegetarian food. This is always done
within a carefully defined ritual setting,
in a conscious effort to sacralize what is
normally forbidden.
Seen in this context, the Kapalikas’
behavior is shocking but becomes more
understandable. Lorenzen also specu-
lates that in performing such behaviors
(which may have only taken place dur-
ing religious ceremonies), the Kapalikas
were identifying themselves with their
chosen deity, Bhairava. In the Hindu
pantheon Bhairava is known for his
uncontrolled excesses, particularly for
cutting off one of the heads of the god
Brahma, for which he has to perform
severe penances (prayashchitta). In this
understanding, the Kapalikas’ practices
are not motivated by hedonistic self-
gratification but by the desire to imitate
their chosen deity. The only developed
source on the Kapalikas is David
Lorenzen, The Kapalikas and the
Kalamukhas, 1972.Kapalin
(“skull-bearer”) The name for any
asceticbearing a human skull, either as
a beggingbowl or as a piece of ascetic
paraphernalia. Such ascetics are devo-
tees (bhakta) of the god Shivain his ter-
rible form. Their use of the skull is aKapalin