have existed earlier, since it appears in
this text fully developed.
Marriage, Eight Classical Forms
Dharma literature (texts prescribing
rules for correct human behavior and
ideal social life) recognizes eight forms
of marriage: Brahma, Daiva, Arsha,
Prajapatya, Asura, Gandharva,
Rakshasa, and Paishacha. The first four
forms were approved (prashasta). In
each case, the father of the bride was
responsible for arranging the marriage:
in the Brahma form, he gave his daugh-
teras a gift without conditions; in the
Daiva form, she was given as a sacrificial
fee; in the Arsha form, in exchange for a
pair of cattle for sacrifice; and in the
Prajapatya form, with the condition that
the husband and wife perform their
duties together.
The other four forms were consid-
ered reprehensible forms of marriage
(aprashasta). Two of these four were
tolerated: the Asura form, in which
the bride was exchanged for money,
and the Gandharva form, in which bride
and groom plighted their troth by
mutual consent—that is, through con-
sensual sexual intercourse. The final
two forms were strictly forbidden:
Rakshasa, in which the bride was
forcibly abducted; and Paishacha, in
which a man took sexual advantage of a
woman who was insentient—the result
of drunkenness, a deep sleep, or drug-
ging. It is interesting to note that all of
these forms were deemed to create a
valid marriage—even the two that were
forbidden. The aim in sanctioning
such forbidden marriages was not to
encourage such actions, but to give
the woman the legal status of a wife.
In contemporary times most of these
forms of marriage are no longer
practiced except for the Brahma
marriage, which carries the highest
status, and the Asura marriage. For
further information see Pandurang
Vaman Kane (trans.), A History of
Dharmasastra, 1968; and Raj Bali
Pandey, Hindu Samskaras, 1969. Despite
their age, they remain the best sources for
traditional Hindu religious rites.Marriage Ceremonies
In India, virtually everybody gets mar-
ried. Marriage is a religious duty for
twice-born men, satisfying one of their
Three Debts, in this case the debt to
their ancestors. Twice-born men are
householders born into one of the three
“twice-born” groups in Indian society,
brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya. Such
men are eligible to receive the adoles-
cent religious initiationknown as the
“second birth.” For most Hindu women,
being wives and mothers defines their
identity. Marriage is also the event by
which families are formed and grow.
Since the family is considered the
bedrock of Hindu society, for most peo-
ple, marriage is the single most impor-
tant event in their lives.
The great significance of marriage
in Hindu culture means that this
life-changing event is attended with
potential peril because there is no
certainty of success. Other potential
dangers come from the inauspicious
nature of certain times, people, and
the belief that this inauspiciousness
may bring bad fortune for the future.
Finally, given that the bride and groom
are the center of attention in the days
before the marriage, there is the dangerMarriage CeremoniesIn many traditional Hindu marriage ceremonies,
the groom’s turban is attached to the bride’s sari,
binding the couple together.