action of samskaras. This process of
transformation begins before birth,
with the three prenatal samskaras, and
continues to death with the antyeshthi
samskaras. In general, samskaras trans-
form people in two ways: by removing
latent or residual impurities, such as the
childhood chudakarana samskara, or
by generating new capacities and enti-
tlements, such as the upanayana(initia-
tion) and vivaha(marriage) samskaras.
Although different writers in the dhar-
ma literaturedisagree on the number of
samskaras, traditionally, sixteen are
accepted. Three were prenatal samskaras:
one to ensure conception (Garbhadhana),
one to ensure the birth of a boy
(Pumsavana), and one to ensure an easy
delivery and a healthy child (Siman-
tonnayana). Six samskaras were associat-
ed with childhood: ritual actions immedi-
ately after birth (Jatakarma), name-giving
(Namakarana), the first outing (Nishkra-
mana), the first solid food (Anna-
prashana), head-shaving(Chudakarana),
and piercing of the ears (Karnavedha).
Five samskaras were connected with life as
a celibate student (brahmacharin): begin-
ning of learning (Vidyarambha), adoles-
cent religious initiation (Upanayana), the
beginning of Vedastudy (Vedarambha),
the first shave (Keshanta), and the return
home at the conclusion of studies (Sama-
vartana). The final two samskaras were
marriage, and the last rites for the dead
(antyeshthi samskara).
These sixteen samskaras were the
rites for a twice-bornman, whom this
literature considered the default person.
A twice-born man was one born into
one of the three “twice-born” varnas—
brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya—who
were ritually eligible for the adolescent
religious initiation known as the “sec-
ond birth.”Womenin the twice-born
groups would undergo all the rites
through the childhood rites, but would
have no further rites until marriage,
which was considered equal to all sam-
skaras for them. People born outside the
twice-born groups—namely, shudras
and untouchables—would perform few
if any of these rites.
These life cycle rites drive and gov-
ern the formation of the individual. In
modern times many of these sam-
skaras are still performed, but mainly
by brahmins who, because of their tra-
ditional role as priests and scholars,
conserve this practice to help main-
tain their traditional prestige. For fur-
ther information see Pandurang
Vaman Kane, A History of Dharma-
sastra, 1968; and Raj Bali Pandey,
Hindu Samskaras, 1969. The former is
encyclopedic and the latter more
accessible; despite their age, they
remain the best sources about tradi-
tional Hindu rites.Samudra Gupta
(r. 335–376) The second monarch in the
Gupta dynasty, sonof Chandra Gupta I.
During his reign Samudra Gupta made
significant territorial gains from the
Gupta dynasty’s home base in eastern
Uttar Pradeshand Biharwestward to
the Ganges basin and eastward into
Bengal and Assam. Orissaand much of
the Coromandel Coast gave tribute as
independent but vassal states. Samudra
Gupta left a personal account of his
prowess inscribed on a stone column at
Allahabad. This column had originally
been carved to display one of the Pillar
Edictsof the Maurya emperor Ashoka
(r. 269–232 B.C.E.), and in claiming it as
his own Samudra Gupta was attempting
to appropriate some of the Maurya
dynasty’sluster.Samvad
(“dialogue”) Technical term for the
speaking parts in the Ramnagar Ram
Lila, a dramatic presentation of the
Ramayanastaged annually at the forti-
fied town of Ramnagar, near Benares.
The dialogues are interspersed with
recitations from the Ramcharitmanas,
a vernacular retelling of the Ramayana
written by the poet-saint Tulsidas
(1532–1623?), and render the archaic
language of the Ramcharitmanas into
modern vernacular Hindi. The action inSamvad