The sadhu(“straight”) is the other
major type of ascetic and the most diffi-
cult to define. Most sadhus are unaffili-
ated with any religious organization,
have undertaken no formal ascetic initi-
ation, and fall outside the other groups’
sectarian boundaries. A sadhu is a soli-
tary religious seeker, driven to attain
religious goals by doing whatever seems
best to him (or more rarely, to her).
Asceticism
In the most general sense, this word
denotes physical discipline, most often
the renunciation of regular society and
conventional social life in a quest to
seek religious insight and to gain final
liberation of the soul (moksha).
Historically, ascetic practice has
stressed several constant themes. One of
the most common has been celibacy,
for a variety of reasons. Not only does
sexual enjoyment use the senses to trap
a person, but the attachments caused by
home and family are seen as a distrac-
tion to serious spiritual life. Yet the
emphasis on celibacy is also motivated
by the belief that semenis a man’s con-
centrated essence, and thus it is some-
thing to be carefully hoarded. Although
semen must be expended for procre-
ation, it should not be spilled casually
since this drains away a man’s vitality. It
is believed that energy gained from
celibacy leads to greater spiritual
accomplishment.
Another hallmark has been the prac-
tice of tapas, or physical asceticism,
under the assumption that enduring
physical hardship not only builds char-
acter but also generates spiritual power.
At times tapas can assume grotesque
forms of self-mutilation and mortifica-
tion. At other times it may be a milder
physical discipline, such as a form of
hatha yoga, to train the body and mind
for extended practice.
In general, ascetic spiritual develop-
ment can proceed along a variety of dif-
ferent paths, which often reflect the
abilities and inclinations of the ascetics
following them. Some paths have
stressed the importance of traditional
learning, some have stressed worship
and devotion, some have stressed phys-
ical asceticism, and some have stressed
meditation and individual realization.
In almost all cases, this spiritual training
takes place under the direction of a reli-
gious preceptor (guru), who takes
responsibility for the spiritual develop-
ment of his disciples.
Asceticism in India has a long and
venerable history, although there is
considerable disagreement regarding
how long and how venerable. The most
ambitious claim is that the Indian
ascetic tradition comes from the
religion of the Indus Valley civilization.
This claim is based on one of the Indus
Valley seals, an ancient artifact that
shows a figure sitting cross-legged as if
in meditation.
Whether or not one accepts this
claim, there is ample evidence of
asceticism in the Vedas, the earliest
Hindu scriptures. The Vedas mention
renunciant figures, such as the vratya,
yati, and muni, and also refer to
ascetics living in the forest. Indeed,
the very name of one stratum of the
Veda, the Aranyakas or “Forest
Books,” suggests that it was composed
by such ascetics. Buddhist and Jain lit-
erature clearly shows that ascetic life
was well established by the fifth centu-
ry B.C.E., as do some of the later upan-
ishads. All of these ascetics, whether
Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain, were desig-
nated under the umbrella term shra-
mana, a word whose basic meaning is
“to strive.” It is generally accepted that
there was religious tension between
the two dominant religious paradigms,
theBrahmana ideal connected with
Vedic religion and the shramana ideal
associated with asceticism. The
Brahmana ideal was based on sacri-
fice, mastery of complex sacred texts,
and hereditary priesthood; further-
more, it was so expensive that it virtu-
ally required royal patrons—all of
these factors rendering it the “estab-
lishment religion.” These concepts
clashed with the shramana ideal,Asceticism