eight sections it contains. Panini wrote
the Ashtadhyayias a descriptive account
of contemporary Sanskrit, but in later
generations the text was transformed
into the prescriptive norm for the lan-
guage. Each of the Ashtadhyayi’s eight
sections is composed of a series of brief
aphorisms (sutras), which are usually
only a few words long, and refers to a
specific facet of Sanskrit grammar. Each
sutra in a given section builds upon all
the preceding sutras, and in turn pro-
vides the foundation and background
for understanding those coming after it.
This sequential description means that
Panini began with Sanskrit’s most
general linguistic features and moved
from there to more specific ones. This
method allowed Panini to provide a
complete account of the Sanskrit
language as briefly as possible, and the
text’s condensed form facilitated memo-
rization. As with most sutra texts, the
Ashtadhyayi’s terseness of expression
presupposes a commentary, since the
sutras themselves are so short and pithy
that they are simply cryptic to the unini-
tiated. The Ashtadhyayi’s most famous
commentary is the Mahabhashya,
written by the grammarian Patanjaliin
the second century B.C.E.
Ashtalakshmi
Eight different forms of the goddess
named Lakshmi, representing her dif-
ferent aspects as the source of wealth
and prosperity. The eight are often por-
trayed as a set, although one may also
encounter them separately: Vijaya(“vic-
tory”) Lakshmi, Jaya (“conquest”)
Lakshmi, Dhana (“wealth”) Lakshmi,
Dhanya (“grain”) Lakshmi, Gaja (“ele-
phant”) Lakshmi, Aishvarya (“divine
power”) Lakshmi, Vina (a musical
instrument) Lakshmi, and Raja (“royal”)
Lakshmi.
Ashtanga (“eight-limbed”) Yoga
System of yoga(religious discipline) tra-
ditionally ascribed to Patanjali(1st c.
C.E.?). This author is believed to be dif-
ferent than the grammarianPatanjali,
who wrote the Mahabhashyacommen-
tary on Panini’s Sanskritgrammar.
Patanjali’s Yoga Sutrasare the basis
for the Yoga school of Indian philoso-
phy, one of the six schools. By the early
centuries of the common era (approxi-
mately 100–300 C.E.), the Yoga school
had become paired with the Samkhya
school. In this pairing, Samkhya provid-
ed the theoretical and metaphysical
explanations for the bondage and liber-
ation of the soul, while Yoga laid out the
concrete path for ending bondage and
gaining liberation.
Ashtanga yoga is made up of eight
parts, known as “limbs” (anga):
restraints (yama), observances (niyama),
bodily postures (asana), restraint of
breath (pranayama), withdrawal of the
senses (pratyahara), concentration
(dharana), meditation (dhyana), and
trance (samadhi).
Patanjali’s system is an eight-step
program for self-transformation, which
begins by cultivating certain whole-
some behavioral patterns (yama and
niyama). From there one progresses to
development and control of the mind,
which is considered a more subtle and
internalized practice. It culminates in a
mystic insight that brings liberation,
which in its original articulation is
described as yogic aloneness (kaivalya)
because Samkhya is atheistic.
Patanjali’s path shows general simi-
larities to another well-known program
for self-transformation, the Buddha’s
eightfold path. Although both Patanjali
and the Buddha are credited with origi-
nating their particular paths, it is likely
that they both drew from an existing
yogic tradition and shaped it to fit their
own assumptions.
Although Samkhya metaphysics
have long been discredited, the tech-
niques of the Yoga school are still vitally
important in modern Hindu religious
life. Many modern Hindu movements
stress yoga practice as a means of spiri-
tual discipline, purification, and self-
awareness. For further information see
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and CharlesAshtanga (“eight-limbed”) Yoga