In the full version of service à la Russe, there are supposed to be
15 courses. The important thing about the order of courses is that
it’s ritualized. What we saw at fi rst only at the courts of powerful
people has now descended to ordinary people, along with manners. Another thing that changes, although very gradually through the
early modern period and into the 19th century, is meal times. In the
16 th century, there were two standard meals: dinner at around 11 in
the morning and then supper, the smaller meal (usually of soup), at
5 or 6. Some people ate a small breakfast fi rst thing in the morning,
and late at night, some ate a small snack called a collation, but two
meals were fairly standard. By the time we get to the 19th century, meal patterns begin to
change, but only among the wealthy. Poor people, factory workers,
and people in the north of England hold onto the older patterns
well into the late 20th century. Among the wealthy and especially
in cities, the meal pattern began to have dinner pushed later and
later—fi nally to around 6 or 7, where it is today. Between the two main meals fell two other new meals: nuncheon
(at noon), or luncheon, a small social gathering that involved
sharing a small meal; and then tea around 4 or 5 in the evening,
which was involved tea, sandwiches, and pastries. The three-meal
pattern we are familiar with only developed in the 19th century; the
only major difference is that in the United States, we’ve done away
with tea as a meal.Celebrity Chefs
Working within these new restaurants and for noble or royal
patrons were also what we might call the fi rst celebrity chefs, men
who considered their work to be an art, were paid very well, and
attracted numerous customers for their establishments. Most of
them also wrote cookbooks.
The restaurants were huge, ornate structures with paintings on
the walls, chandeliers, elegant furniture, and linens. Some pulled