in the late T'ang. This text was seen as a third, integrating principle uniting the
MVS and the STTS. For these developments, see R. Misaki, "On the Thought of
Susiddhi in the Esoteric Buddhism of the Late T' ang Dynasty," in Studies of Esoteric
Buddhism and Tantrism in Commemoration of the I, I 50th Anniversary of the Found-
ing of Koyasan (Koyasan: Koyasan University Press, 1965), pp. 255-81.
33 For the two types of cosmology, see Randolf Kloetzli, Buddhist Cosmology (Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass, 1983); and Charles D. Orzech, "Cosmology in Action: Recur-
sive Cosmology, Soteriology, and Authority in Chen-yen Buddhism with Special Ref-
erence to the Monk Pu-k'ung" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1986). Traditional
scholarship has repeatedly tried to pigeonhole each of these texts as predominantly
Y ogacara or Madhyamika. These efforts might serve some heuristic purpose but, as is
the case with any text which is self-consciously synthetic, they admit of many inter-
pretations and affiliations.
34 For a discussion of the doctrine of the Two Truths, see Junjir6 Takakusu, The Essen-
tials of Buddhist Philosophy (Honolulu, 1947; reprint, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1978), pp. 99-111; Fredrick J. Streng, Emptiness: A Study in Religious Meaning
(New York: Abingdon, 1967); and Mervyn Sprung, ed., The Problem of Two Truths
in Buddhism and Vedanta (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1973). The problem of the Two Truths
in Buddhism is reminiscent of certain problems in mathematics and physics concern-
ing recursivity and what Douglas Hofstadter calls "strange Loops"; see Douglas R.
Hofstadter, Code!, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (New York: Vintage,
1980).
35 On the siidhana and its importance, see Agehananda Bharati, The Tantric Tradition
(New York: Rider, 1965), pp. 13-17, 228-78; and Sanjukta Gupta, "Tantric Sadhana:
Piija," in Sanjukta Gupta, Dirk Jan Hoens, and Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantrism
(Leiden: Brill, 1979).
36 Jeffrey Hopkins describes this process as "approximation" in his translation of Tsong-
ka-pa's The Great Exposition of Secret Mantra: The Yoga of Tibet (London: Allen &
Unwin, 1981 ), in the exposition of "Performance Tantra" ( carya tantra) which is pri-
marily about the Sarvatathiigatatattvasaf!lgraha; see esp. pp. 185-88. When full
siddhi is achieved the approximation becomes an icon (my term) or samaya.
37 A lot has been written on the topic, but good accounts are by Mircea Eliade, Yoga:
Immortality and Freedom, trans. Willard R. Trask (New York, 1964; reprint, Prince-
ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1972), pp. 267-73; Bharati, pp. 199-227; Shasi
Bushan Dasgupta, An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism (Calcutta, 1958; reprint,
Berkeley: Shambala, 1974), pp. 113-21. See also Herbert Guenther, Yuganaddha:
The Tantric View of Life, 2d ed. (Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office,
1964).
38 On nyiisa (the localization of divine powers in the body), see Bharati, pp. 273-74;
Eliade, pp. 210-11; and the Mahiivairocana Siitra, T. 848: 18.22a-22b, 38b-38c.
39 Beyer (n. 28 above); William Stablien, "A Descriptive Analysis of the Content of
Nepalese Buddhist Piijiis as a Medical-Cultural System with Reference to Tibetan
Parallels," in In the Realm of the Extra-Human: Ideas and Actions, ed. A. Bharati
(The Hague: Mouton, 1976), pp. 165-73, and his "Tantric Medicine and Ritual Bless-
ings," Tibetan Journal! (1976): 55-69.
40 Indeed, one of the most widely used Vajrayana rites is that designed to protect the
state. See my "Puns on the Humane King: Analogue and Application in an East Asian
Apocryphon," Journal of the American Oriental Society 109, no. I (January-March
1989): 17-24.
41 The sources for the P'u-tu are many, and I will list just a few here. The best descrip-
tion is still that in Juliet Bredon and Igor Mitrophanow, The Moon Year: A Record of
Chinese Customs and Festivals (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1927), pp. 386-90. Also,
