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same problem: the role of themanteionwould have varied with the questions put to
it, but which are now lost: ‘‘To which gods should I sacrifice to secure the success of
the colony?’’; ‘‘Is it wise to establish a colony near Sybaris?’’; or again, ‘‘Where should
we direct our sails?’’ (Malkin 1987).
Plutarch has seemingly bequeathed to us his firm belief that Greek oracles basked in
their supposed political glory and molded the Greece ‘‘of the free age.’’ In his time,
they were naturally perceived as no longer being at the height of the exaggerated
reputation that the tradition had forged for them.
This strong criticism does not invite the denial of the influence of oracles,
but redoubled caution in the interpretation of it (Bowden 2005). By contrast, the
public influence of diviners andchre ̄smologoior oracle-mongers was certainly great.
Lampon, who belonged to the circle of Pericles, was an influential political figure, as
is demonstrated by his amendment to an Athenian decree about Eleusis (IGi^3 78).
He was a drafter of the peace of Nicias. And this type of divination found still more
fertile ground amongst the common people, so that, once delivered, a prediction
could spread like wildfire, right to the heart of the eccle ̄sia: on the subject of
an attack against the Spartans, ‘‘thechre ̄smologoideclaimed oracles of every kind,
and everyone listened to them according to their predispositions’’ (Thucydides
2.21.2–3).


The End of Oracles


Between the third and first centuries BC divination suffered from the effects of
incessant wars in Greece. The appearance of decline is reinforced by the complete
loss of hellenistic literature, whilst that of the Second Sophistic, which was interested
in divination, experienced a much better fate. The philosophical schools discussed
divination at length in their treatises, which are now lost, and Plutarch naturally
follows them (S. Levin 1989). Divination evolved little, because, if any field was ruled
by tradition, it was that one which involved contact with the gods. Nonetheless, some
oracles of Apollo, especially in Asia Minor, became more theological or philosophical
(Lane Fox 1997:216–54). For this reason inquiries were made that sought to
uncover the truths of existence, such as the question posed by Oenoanda, a little
city in Asia Minor, on the nature of the deity (Milner 2002).
The end of the Greek oracles is a varied story. It is connected with the rise
of Christianity, but not in a simple way, because Christianity formed part of a
culture in which this type of need was transformed. The vogue for astrology came
to its zenith, and incubation continued to be practiced by Christians. It is true,
however, that numerous laws of the Christian empire attempted to close down
sanctuaries and others explicitly banned the oracles, notably those of Theodosius
in 385 AD.
I would like to conclude on a note of drama and revelation. Alexander Demandt
(1970) established the dates of all the eclipses in ancient sources and confronted them
with the irrefutable data of astronomy: at least two hundred cases are bogus. We must
be cautious about the veracity of signs and oracles invoked, but we must also be
sensitive to the trust that the ancients placed in them.


158 Pierre Bonnechere

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