a solution:for example,completeness of the diaphysis,lack of impres-
sions from opposing and neighboring teeth,the regular string of holes,
and the location,morphology,size,and shape of the holes.It is therefore
necessary to examine many issues connected with the possibility that
humans modified the bone,and that it may represent the oldest musical
instrument known.
In the event that the holes were made by people,their manufacture
can be directly linked with stone tools found at the site that would have
been suitable for the specific task of piercing bone.The procedure can
even be repeated experimentally,and this we actually did (but see
Albrecht et al.1998,who arrived at mostly negative results).Our results
were as follows.
The irregular shape of the holes and occasionally disposed “corners”
can be more suitably connected with the punching or chipping the holes
with a pointed and/or tongued stone tool than with activities of a carni-
vore and subsequent enlargement of the small holes thus made by
uneven weathering of the rims of the holes (see Chase and Nowell 1998).
We must stress that the technique with which the holes could have been
produced is essentially different from those (drilling,scraping,pressure
flaking) with which holes were made in generally recognized Upper
Paleolithic flutes and other perforated objects (see McComb 1989;
Buisson and Dartiguepeyrou 1996;Albrecht et al.1998;Hein and Hahn
1998).
Whereas more recent examples of flutes have bored holes,which is
immediately evident from clear traces of drilling and indirectly from
characteristic damage to drilling tools (borers),the holes in our example
could only have been chipped (Bastiani and Turk 1997).This can be
established directly from possible microscopic traces of chipping,and
indirectly from specific damage to chipping tools.These tools,according
to original typological nomenclature,are characterized as points,con-
vergent scrapers,borers,denticulates,and so on (Bordes 1988).On so-
called borers,which are older than the Upper Paleolithic,no damage
would indicate a function in conformity with the name of the tool.The
technique of boring is evidently more recent than the technique of chip-
ping,although we can increase the effectiveness of chipping by rotating
the tool (which does not mean drilling),making the hole more round
than angular.We must stress that the technique of chipping is not rec-
ognized in the Upper Paleolithic and is so far completely unknown.An
almost circular or oval hole is obtained only with a boring tool,that is,
hand boring.Tools suitable for chipping holes have a number of irregu-
lar sharp edges on the sides,whereas the teeth of carnivores do not.
Because of this,the outline of holes that have been chipped with stone
tools are not completely circular and have at least one or more corners.245 New Perspectives on the Beginnings of Music