166 Presidential politics
of interdepartmental committees. Under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson,
however, the Council met less frequently, problems being dealt with much
more by the president in collaboration with groups of advisers. Like the
cabinet itself, the National Security Council cannot make decisions for the
president, but can only provide the information and advice on which to base
decisions. Certainly it would seem that few major decisions at times of crisis
have actually been made in the Council. Under the control of the National
Security Council, nominally at least, is the Central Intelligence Agency. Its
major function is to coordinate the intelligence activities of the government
and to evaluate the intelligence that is received. However, in the wake of the
Watergate scandal, disclosures about CIA activities led to investigations of its
activities by Vice-President Rockefeller and by Congress. The extraordinary
revelations of its operations, culminating in bizarre, James Bond-like plots to
assassinate foreign heads of state, raise profound questions about the nature
of the American governmental machine. Whether CIA activities are charac-
teristic of the secret services of other states we cannot know – they do not
allow their legislatures to investigate secret activities in the way in which
Congress has done. The more important question, however, is the extent
to which these almost unbelievable plots were evolved with or without the
knowledge of responsible members of the administration. The fragmented
nature of the American administrative machine will be stressed later in this
book, and the problems to which it gives rise are well known. However, what
is merely ‘uncoordinated action’ in one part of the government machine can
in another lead the whole world into disaster.
Homeland Security
The problem of the coordination of the government machine, and the pro-
pensity of American government to spawn new agencies was highlighted by
the situation that developed after ‘9/11’. One of the consequences of the
attack on the World Trade Center in New York in 2001 was a review of the
organisation of the federal government to foresee, prevent and deal with ter-
rorist attacks and other disasters that might occur. The immediate response
was to create new government agencies. The Department of Homeland Se-
curity was established in 2002 with the task to ‘prevent and deter terrorist
attacks and protect against and respond to threats and hazards to the na-
tion. We will ensure safe and secure borders, welcome lawful immigrants and
visitors, and promote the free-flow of commerce.’ The Homeland Security
Council was set up in the Executive Office of the President, alongside the
National Security Council. On 1 March 2003, the Federal Emergency Man-
agement Agency (FEMA) became part of the Department of Homeland Se-
curity. Its mission was ‘to lead the effort to prepare the nation for all hazards
and effectively manage federal response and recovery efforts following any
national incident.’ It wasn’t long before FEMA was tested by the onslaught