The Dictionary of Human Geography

Besides these individuals, a variety of key
issues within the geographical tradition drew
heavily on evolutionary motifs. Statements
ofenvironmental determinismby figures
such as Ellen Semple, Elsworth Huntington
and Griffith Taylor were invariably couched
in evolutionary categories, with climate,
migration and natural selection routinely play-
ing the leading roles. From a more radical per-
spective, Peter Kropotkin found in a modified
Darwinism the grounds for championing col-
lectivism, opposing Spencerian individualism
and connecting up the philosophy of natural
science with anarchism. This essentially
Russian reading of evolution drew inspiration
from the St Petersburg naturalists, all of whom
had conductedfieldworkin Siberia, in condi-
tions markedly different from the tightly
packed-in niches of the tropical world – in par-
ticular, from the work of Karl Kessler, who set
out the law of mutual aid. The transference of
ideas aboutcommunitybetween sociology and
ecology, couched within an evolutionarypol-
itical economy, also found expression in
geography in the tradition ofhuman ecology
(Mitman, 1992). Debates about acclimatiza-
tion were likewise connected up to questions
about heredity andadaptation(Livingstone,
1987a; Anderson, 1992). And early theoretical
statements aboutregional geography, such
as those of Herbertson and Geddes, were sup-
ported by appeals to the need for elucidating
evolutionary mechanisms in specific contexts
(Livingstone, 1992).
Within contemporary human geography,
issues raised by Darwinism continue to sur-
face. The legitimacy of transferring biological
categories to the social order, for example,
continues to be the subject of debate (cf.bio-
power), as are matters rotating around the
understanding of hownatureandculture–
to employ two abstractions – are to be concep-
tualized. Recently too, enquiries have been
undertaken into the geographyofDarwinism,
with the aim of ascertaining the ways in which
evolutionary theory circulated around the
world and was differently embraced, mobil-
ized and resisted in the light of localcultural
politics(Livingstone, 2006). dl

Suggested reading
Bowler (1989); Livingstone (2006); Stoddart
(1966).

data archive A central repository of access-
ible data sets. Researchers are encouraged to
deposit original data sets (e.g. survey data)
there to enable others to conductsecondary

data analyses. Many countries now have

such archives (usually sponsored by research

funding agencies that encourage – in some

cases require – researchers to deposit data

sets to encourage social scientific advances

through the re-analysis of existing data sets

alongside the creation of new sources). These

archives are increasingly used to store and

disseminate not only original data sets col-

lected by academic researchers but also

those collected by public-sector bodies (such

ascensuses). Although most of those archives

focus on quantitative data, other types are now

stored in formats that allow them to be made

readily available to other researchers – as in

Qualidata, part of the UK Data Archive

housed at the University of Essex (seesoft-

ware for qualitative research) – and

archives that store maps in digital form, and

theinternethas facilitated linking archives

to enable international data-sharing. As well

as storing data, most archives offer training

and other forms of user support to facilitate

analyses of the data sets held. rj

Suggested reading

See theGuide to primary social science data and

related resources available on the Internet(http://

http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/datalib/other/) and the

Social science data archives (http://www2.fmg.

uva.nl/sociosite/databases.html)

data mining Computer-based automated

procedures for searching large and complex

data sets in order to identify spatial patterns

and relationships, either to confirm existing

or to generate newhypotheses.Inspatial

analysis, Openshaw’sgeographical analy-

sis machineandgeographical explanation

machineexemplify data mining algorithms, as

do some aspects ofgeodemographics. Some

term these practices ‘data dredging’, since

they are based on little prior knowledge and

exemplify inductive thinking (seeinduction)

whereby explanations are sought after patterns

are identified (cf.exploratory data analy-

sis): however, they can also be abductive (cf.

abduction;geocomputation). Many of the

structured algorithms for data mining use

artificial intelligenceapproaches. rj

Suggested reading

Berry and Linoff (1997).

decentralization A process of spatial change

generated by centrifugal forces (cf.centrifu-

gal and centripetal forces). Within urban

areas (seeurbanization), demands for space

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DECENTRALIZATION