The Dictionary of Human Geography

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multidimensional scaling (MDS) Methods

for simplifying matrices of distances between

a set of points, while as far as possible retain-

ing their relative ordering (i.e. of the distances

between the observations). Developed by psy-

chologists for identifying similarities among

individuals on a wide range of attitudes (the

distances measure how much each pair differ

on a set of attitudinal scales), MDS locates the

individuals in a smaller number of dimensions

than the original scales, so reducing a multidi-

mensional situation to more comprehensible

proportions (cf.factor analysis). MDS has

been adapted for simplifyingmapson the basis

of, for example, the time taken to travel

between two points rather than the distance

between them. rj

Suggested reading

Gatrell (1983).

multilateralism Foreign policy actions in-

volving agreements, treaties and co-operative

actions between more than twostates.In

contrast to actions by single states (unilateral-

ism) or between two states (bilateralism),

multilateralism involves international treaties

between many parties or regional agreem-

ents between groups of neighbouring states.

Multilateralism is often a strategy advocated

by medium-sized states hoping to shape inter-

national agreements in their favour in the

face of the greaterpowerof large states. The

term is sometimes used derisively by power

brokers in the great powers, and as a term

of virtue and aspiration by those anxious to

limit the capabilities of great powers to act

unilaterally.

But in fact superpowers and great powers

frequently use multilateral institutions; in-

deed, the USA used its power after the Second

World War to establish many multilateral

institutions, especially through the Bretton

Woods financial arrangements and alliances

such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-

tion (NATO), which in turn were useful in the

pursuit of its hegemonic international goals

(Latham, 1997). Multilateralism is often dir-

ectly linked to such institutions. Ruggie (1993,

p. 14) suggests that the term ‘multilateral’ is

best understood as ‘an adjective that modifies

the noun ‘‘institution.’’ What distinguishes the

multilateral form from others is that it coord-

inates behavior among three or more states on

the basis of generalized principles of conduct.’

This suggests that multilateralism is frequently

also about building norms or rules that guide

state conduct.

Currently, the most high profile multilateral

institutions are the United Nations (UN) and

the world trade organization (WTO),

which deals with most internationaltradein

the global economy. Given that these organ-

izations provide legitimacy for states, and act

to censure and sanction those that violate the

multilateral codes of conduct, great powers

frequently use these institutions to justify

their actions. The USA’s use of the UN in

1990 and 1991 to justify military intervention

in Iraq during the first Gulf War, and the

invocation of the alliance commitments

under NATO in the aftermath of theterror-

istattacks on 11 September 2001, illustrate

that multilateralism has many uses even for

superpowers.

Multilateralism in European history is usu-

ally traced to the ‘Concert ofeurope’ arrange-

ments set up after Napoleon’s final defeat in

1815. Designed to produce the peaceful
      resolution of conflicts, the Concert facilitated
      diplomatic agreements and, despite notable
      lapses such as the Franco-Prussian war of
      1870–1, managed to maintain relatively
      peaceful relations between the European
      powers for a century. This system was shat-
      tered by the First World War in 1914 and
      replaced by the League of Nations, which in
      turn was replaced in 1945 after the Second
      World War by the UN in a further attempt to
      establish a multilateral institution to prevent
      warbetween states. The UN now includes all
      the states in the system as members. Among
      the multilateral norms that the UN system has
      established as ground rules for international
      conduct three are of particular importance:
      territorial integrity (see territory); non-
      intervention; and sovereign equality among
      states (see sovereignty). In combination,
      these have produced a territorial order of for-
      mally sovereign states in the aftermath of the
      decolonization of the European empires.
      This multilateral norm has also effectively
      fixed theboundariesof states, creating a (rela-
      tive) territorial permanence to the world pol-
      itical map (Zacher, 2001).
      Ironically, however, just as statebordersare
      becoming increasingly fixed, and thus a major
      source of internationalconflictsis being re-
      moved, many major problems are spilling over
      those borders and require concerted inter-
      national co-operation. In recent decades,
      multilateral action by international social
      movements and campaigns onhuman rights,
      global warmingand a host of other predica-
      ments confronting what is sometimes de-
      scribed as globalcivil societyhave injected

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MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING (MDS)